THE 


PLANNING   AND   CONSTRUCTION 
OF  HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


BY 

WILLIAM    II.    15  IK  KM  IKK. 


-fnllti  JMlnstratcb. 


S  T    ED  1  T  I  O  N. 
FIRST    THOUSAND. 


XK\V     YORK  : 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS. 
LONDON:    CHAPMAN   \-   HALL,   LIMITED. 

1 898. 


Copyright,  1898, 

BV 

WILLIAM    H.    BIRKM1RE. 


-)BKRT   DRUM  \IOND.    F.LFCTI  Ol  VPER    AND    VR1NTPR.    NKW    YORK. 


uonvj 

MN 


PREFACE. 

Tins  volume  is  presented  to  architects,  engineers,  and 
builders  as  supplementary  to  the  author's  work  on  "  Skeleton 
Construction  in  Buildings,"  published  in  April,  1894. 

While  the  latter  was  written  during  the  period  of  the 
change  in  building-construction  methods,  this  is  the  result  of 
his  practical  experience  since  that  time  in  the  planning, 
designing,  and  construction  of  high  office-buildings,  in  which 
these  structures  have  attained  their  present  development. 

A  number  of  articles  on  this  subject,  published  in  Ar- 
chitecture and  Building,  were  so  favorably  received  that  he 
has  been  induced  to  edit  this  work. 

WILLIAM   H.   BIRKMIKE. 

NEW  YORK,  1 898. 


TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

REPRESENTATIVE  HIGH  OI-F1CE-KCILDINGS  AND    THEIR   DEVELOPMENT. 

PACE 

Introduction I 

New  York's  Representative  High  Office-buildings 2 

Chicago's                                                                           7 

Cause  of  the  Modern  Office-building  Development 7 

Elevators,  Steel  and  Iron ,  solve  the  Problem S 

High  Office-buildings  Artistically  Considered ...  13 

A  Limit  to  the  Press  Discussion  against  High  Huildings .  .  .  19 

Danger  from  Fire  in  High  Buildings 31 

The  Rapid  Erection  of  High  Buildings 39 

Rapid  Erection  of  the  Manhattan  Life  Building,  New  York 40 

"          "    "    Fisher  Building,  Chicago,  111 46 

"          "    "    Reliance      "                  "          " 51 

The  Progress  of  Erection  of  a  High  Office-building  described 52 

CHAPTER    II. 

/•/,  OOR-PI.  A  VNING. 

Floor-planning 66 

Well-lighted  Rooms 66 

A  Maximum  of  Rentable  Space. 66 

Schiller  Theatre  Office-floor  Plan 63 

American  Tract  Society  Building  Floor-plan 70 

National  Bank  of  Commerce  Building  Floor-plan 71 

St.  Paul  Building  Floor-plan 71 

Commercial  Cable  Building  Floor-plan 72 

Good  Elevator  Service  and  Toilet  Arrangements 74 

Lord's  Court  Building  Floor-plan , 70 


VI  TABLE    OF   CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER    III. 
CEXTRAL    BANK   KU1LDIXG,   NEW   YORK. 

FAGF 

Central  Bank  Building,  New  York Si 

"                                         "          "      Style  of  Architecture Si 

1     Office  Arrangement 86 

"                                         "          "      Steel  used  in  the  Construction 86 

CHAPTER    IV. 
EXTERIOR    WALLS. 

Exterior  Walls. ...    98 

Curtain-walls,  New  York  Building  Law 101 

Chicago                           "     103 

Boston                                       103 

Dangers  of  Sky-scrapers    105 

Exterior  Walls  of  the  Central  Bank  Building 1 1 1 

"      Decorated 114 

CHAPTER    V. 

I-'LOOR-COKSTRl'CTION  AND   I- 1 'REPROOF1 'XG. 

Floor-construction  and  Fire  proofing 119 

Live  Loads  on  Floors 119 

Dead      "        "         "      121 

•'     Floor- weights  in  the  Central  Bank  Building 121 

"     "     Old  Colony  Building,  Chicago,  111 122 

"     "     Marshal- Field       "               "            " 123 

Typical  Floor-plan,  Central  Bank  Building 12-; 

Fireproofing  Floors 126 

Various  Fire-proof  Floor  Methods  in  Floor-construction 130 

The  Columbian  Floor-arch 131 

Fire-test 133 

The  Monnier  System 13; 

!-"ire-test  of  the  Boyd- Wilson  Floor-arch    i^(> 

Details  of  the  Columbian  System  described 137 

Dead  Load  of  the      "                         per  Square  Foot 138 

The  Roebling  Floor  arch 138 

System,  Ceiling 138 

"           Floor-system,  Weight 139 

Fire  and  Water  Test .    139 

"                                        Weight-test 14' 

1 1 ol low- tile  Arches 142 

Method  of  Setting 143 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS.  Vli 


Hollow-tile  Arches,  Tests  of  Side  and  End  Construction  ..........    ......  143 

"        Description  of  Arches  Tested  ........................  143 

"       Still-load  Test  .....................................  144 

Dropping  Test    ....................................  145 

Fire  and  Water  Test    ..............................  145 

Continuous  Fire-  tests  ............................  146 

1  '       the  Lee  Tension-rod    ..............................  141) 

Process  of-construction  of  the  Lee  Arch  ..............................  150 

Tests  of  the  Lee  Tension-rod  System  ........    ........................  151 

The  Fawcett  Floor-construction  .....................................  1=3 

Tests    .................................  154 

The  Rapp  Floor-construction  ......................................  1^4 

Tests   .......................  ...........  155 

The  Metropolitan  Floor-arch  System  .....    ............................  155 

Fire  and  Water  Tests    ............  i  56 

The  Acme  Floor-arch    .............................................  1  =  7 

The  Multiplex.  Steel  Plate  Floor-arch  System    ........................  15$ 

The  Practical  Value   of   the    Different   Systems   in    Buildings  and  Tests  by 

the  Writer  ..............................................  .........  i  59 

Partitions  ...........  ..........  ...................................  jt>i 

Fire-proof  Building  Construction  in  the  Pittsburgh  Fire,   May  3,   1807    •  •    •  101 

Effects  of  the  Fire  ..................................................  166 

Progress  and  Intensity  of  the  Fire  ......................................  i  70 

Estimate  of  the  Salvage  ...................  ............................  170 

The  Home  Office-building  Fire  ......................................  1  73 

The  Methodist  Book-building  Fire  ..................................  i  74 

The  Engineering  ATeu>s'  Review  of  the  Pittsburgh  Fire    .  .  ................  178 

A  Lesson  to  be  Learned  by  the  Pittsburgh  Fire  .................  ........  i  S  i 

CHAPTER    VI. 
COLUMNS. 

Columns  ............................................................  iSS 

Arrangement  of  Columns  and  Floor-plan  ..............................  iSs 

Skeleton  Columns  separated  from  Outside  Walls  ........................  i  vj 

Cast  iron  Columns  ...................................................  i^r 

Steel  Columns  .....................................................  ii>2 

Fi  reproofing  Columns   .............................................  i<j4 

Bearing  Strength  of  Columns,  New  York  Building  Law  ..................  i^S 

Crushing  Weight  of  Metal  in  Columns,  Xew  York  Building  Law  ..........  i<i8 

Columns  in  Fire-proof  Buildings  '    ..........  199 

Columns  for  Curtain-walls, 

Strength  of  Columns.  Buffalo  Building  Law  ...........................  2o<  > 

Cast-iron  Pillar  Formula,  "  "   .........         .............    ...  201 

Riveted  Column  Formula,  Steel  and  Iron,  Buffalo  Building  Law  .........  jui 


vi  11  TABLE   OF  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Strength  of  Columns,  Chicago  Building  Law ...  202 

Cast-iron  Column  Formula,  Chicago  Building  Law 202 

Riveted           "                "                 "                "            "     202 

Remarks  upon  the  Different  Column  Formulae 203 

Column  Joints 205 

Wind-bracing 205 

Beams  and  Girders 206 

Connections  for  Beams  of  Different  Sizes   207 

Beam  Connections 209 


CHAPTER    VII. 
FOU.\'DA  T1ONS. 

Foundations  ......  ...................................................    210 

upon  Firm  and  Compressible  Soil    ....    ....................    210 

Rock  ...............................................    210 

Clay  ..............................................    211 

"      Gravel  and  Sand   ...............    ...................   211 

Silt,  Mud,  Soft  Earth,  and  Quicksand.  .....    .........   211 

Bearing  Power  of  Soils  ...............................................    211 

"     Table  .........................................    212- 

The  New  York  Building  Law  Requirements  upon  Soil  ....................    212 

The  Chicago  "  "         "  ...................    212 

Foundations  of  the  Central  Bank  Building    .  .    .........................    213 

"    Lord's  Court  Building  upon  Piles  .......................    214 

The  \ew  York  Building  Law  Requirement  for  Driving  Piles  ........    ....    214 

Formula  for  determining  the  Working  Load  on  Piles  ....................    216 

Table  of  the  Bearing  Power  of  Piles.    The  Engineering  News  Formula  ....    216 

Concrete  Capping  on   Piles  ............................................    216 

Shoring  arid  Sheath  -piling,  Lord's  Court  Building  .......................    217 

Requirements,  Central  Bank  Building  .........    217 

Pneumatic  Caissons  ................    ................................    2iS 

Caisson  Detail  ...................................  ....................   219 

I  lydraulic  Caissons  .............................................  .....    220 

Foundations  upon  Steel  Beams  and  Concrete  ...................  .......    222 

Manner  of  Setting  Steel  Beams  in  Concrete  .....    .......................    222 

Method  of  Calculating  the  Strength  of  Grillage  Beams    ............  ......    223 

CHAPTER    VIII. 
i  in-:  MA  (  y/AVA'A1  )  '-HA  I.L. 


The  Machinery-hall  ..............................    ...................    226 

of  the  Central  Bank  Building  described  ..............    230 

Boilers  ..............................................................    230 


TABLE    OF   CONTENTS.  ix 


.  . 

Engines • 235 

Dynamos _ 

Electric  Lighting  in  the  Central  Bank  Building .  2^g 

Switchboard  of  "          "  "  '•  2 

Telegraph  and  Telephone  Systems,  Central  Bank  Building    243 

Elevators _    ,, ,. 

Hydraulic  Elevators,  Central  Bank  Building 245 

Electric  Elevators  in  Lord's  Court  Building ....   249 

Air-cushions  for  Elevators 254 

Steam-heating 255 

The  Heating  of  Tall  Buildings  by  Exhaust  Steam 255 

The  Webster  Vacuum  System  to  Steam- heating 260 

Description  of  the  Heating  and  Power  Plant  in  the  Central  Bank  Building     270 

A  System  of  Temperature  Regulation  in  Office-buildings 274 

Refrigerator  Apparatus  and  System  of  Cooling  Drinking-water 277 

Elevator  Calling-signals 279 


CHAPTER    IX. 
/'/,;/.l/7»'/.V(;   A XI)    DKAIXAGE. 

Plumbing  and  Drainage 287 

Plumbing  Rules  and  Regulations  of  the  New  York  Building  Law 287 

Materials  and  Workmanship  according  to  the  above  Law 289 

Plans  of  Plumbing  to  be  Approved  by  the  Building  Superintendent 294 

Soil  and  \Vaste  Pipes,  New  York  Building  Law 298 

Plumbing  and  Drainage  in  the  Central  Bank  Building 309 

CHAPTER    X. 

MISCE1J.A  NEOl  'S   DE  TA  ILS. 

Miscellaneous  Details 314 

Stairways 314 

Passenger-elevator  Fronts  and  Cars 314 

Freight-elevator  Enclosures 317 

Elevator  Gratings 317 

Elevator  Pits 317 

Cast-iron  Mullions  and  Panels 317 

Doors  and  Shutters 318 

Bulkheads  on  Roofs 322 

Hanging  Ceilings  in  Boiler-room 322 

False  Furring 3-- 

Skylights  and  Sheet-metal  Work 322 

Terra-cotta  Work  for  Skeleton  Buildings.  . .  325 

Brick  and  Sione  Work 32') 


X  TABLE    OF  CONTENTS. 

TAGI! 

Specification  Requirements  for  Front  Granite-work 329 

Plastering 330 

Interior  Marble-work   333 

Interior  Trim  and  Woodwork 334 

Painting 337 

Safety  Window  Appliances 343 

Revolving  Entrance-doors 344 

Hardware 344 

Roofing 345 


LIST    OF    ILLUSTRATIONS. 


CHAPTER    I. 

mi.  PACK 

1.  Main  Entrance-hall,  Metropolitan  Life  Ins.  Bids,  New  York. .  .Frontispiece 

2.  Empire  Building.  New  York    3 

3.  St.  Paul        "                                5 

4.  Postal  Telegraph  and  Home  Life  Insurance  Building,  New  York 9 

5.  Bowling  Green  Building,  New  York :i 

6.  Gillender  Building,                       "          15 

7.  Commercial  Cable  Building,                 .  \- 

8.  American  Surety                           "          21 

9.  Manhattan  Life  Insurance  Building.  New  York 23 

10.  American  Tract  Society 27 

1 1 .  Ivins  Syndicate                                                               ;?• 

12.  Queen   Insurance  Company 33 

13.  National  Bank  of  Commerce    "                                35 

14.  St.  James  Building.  New  York    37 

i  5.    Masonic  Temple,  Chicago,  111 41 

\(i.    Old  Colony  Building.  Chicago,   111    . 43 

17.  Manhattan   Life  Building       Steel  Frame.    141!]  Story,   Broadway  Front.  45 

1 3.  "                   New  Street     "     .  40 

K).  "            '•                   "          "          i6th       "           "       "             "     .  47 

20.  "          "        Broadway        "     .  j3 

21.  "  Completed  Stonework,  New  Street            '     .  40 

22.  "  Roofed  in  and  Tower  ready  for  Covering  "o 

23.  Fislier  Building,  Chicago.   Ill    =3 

24.  "                                               "      Starting  Columns.  On     12.   1^05 55 

25.  "                                  "            "      Second  Part  of  Third-story  Set. ;i> 

20.          "                                               '•      Seventh  Part  of  Eighth-story  Set " 

27.          "                                           "      Fourteenth-story  Set ^ s 

23.         "                                           "      Roof  on,  Nov.  26,   1895 hi 

29.  Reliance                                             (>2 

30.  "                                                "      Completed  Steel   Frame IIT, 


Xlt  LIST   OF  ILLUSTRATIONS. 


CHAPTER    II. 

FIG.  PACK 

31.  Schiller  Theatre  Building,  Chicago,   111.,  Typical  Floor-plan.    67 

32.  "            "       Plan  of  Ninth  Floor 69 

33    American  Tract  Society  Building,  New  York,  Typical  Floor-plan 70 

34.  National  Bank  of  Commerce  Building,  New  York,  Typical  Floor-plan.  72 

35.  St.  Paul  Building,  New  York,  Typical  Floor-plan 73 

36.  Commercial  Cable  Building,  New  York,  Typical  Floor-plan 75 

37.  Lord's  Court                   "                                                                   79 


CHAPTER    III. 

38.    Central  Bank  Building,  New  York 83 

3g.          "                                                            showing  Condition,  Oct.  24,  1896  .  .  8" 

40.  "  "          Progress    of    Work,     Nov. 

14,  1896 91 

41.  Typical  Floor-plan. 93 


CHAPTER    IV 

42.  Section  of  Warehouse  Walls,  New  York  Building  Law    99 

43.  "        "   Curtain                                                                   " 100 

44.  New  Curtain-wall  Section  recommended  by  Writer    102 

4  =  .  Curtain-wall  Sections.  Chicago  Building  Law 104 

46.  Guaranty   Building,    Buffalo,    N.    Y.      Example   of    the    upper    Outside 

Walls  built  before  the  lower  Wails 107 

47.  Exterior  Walls  of  the  Central  Bank  Building 1 10 

4-5.  A  Fifteen -story  Curt  am -wall  Section i  io 

41;.  Central  Bank  Building.  Detail  Second  Story  Window  Spandrels 112 

=  o.          "                                        Details  of  Third-story  Lintels  and  Cornice....  11^ 

=  i .                                                   Thirteenth-story  Window  Details 114 

s2.           "                                          Details  of  a  Main  Cornice I  I ; 

53.          "                                       Terra-cotui  Column,  ijth  and  141!!  Stories.  ...  117 


CHAPTER    V. 

^4    Central  Bank  Building,  Typical  Beam-plan.  ...     124 

Detail  of  Floor-panels 12^ 

=  f'i.    Columbian  Floor-arch   Section 126 

and  suspended  Ceiling 127 

i  -inch  Ribbed  Bar  Section    129 

E().  li-inch  129 

60.  ''  2-inch        "  "          131 


t)  i .    Columbian    Floor-arch,  cA-inch   Ribbed  Mar  Section    i",  i 

62  Steel  Stirrup  Section i  32 

63.  Perforated   Stirrup  Section i  •;  •, 

64.  "  "        13(1 


<>().  The  Roebling  Floor-arch  and  Ceiling 140 

67.  Section  of  Pioneer  Arch  used   in   I  )en.\  er  T<  s; •; .  144 

OS.  "    Lee  End-method  Arcli  used  in   Denver  Tests 141 

Oc)  '    Wiijht  Arch  used  in    I  Jen  ver  Tests 14; 

70.  Lee  End-construction  Tile-arch , .  .  .  14- 

71.  End  construction  A Ijutment- tile 14* 

72.  Side-method  Arch 141 

73.  Detail  Section  ot  the   Lee  Ten  si  on- rod  Tile -arch  .  .  . I  ^  ! 

74.  Weight  Test       "     '       "  "          152 

75.  The   Fa  wcett   Floor-arch I  ;  ; 

70.  The  Rap  p  Fire -proof    Floor-construction 155 

77.  The  Acme  Method  of  Fl<  lor-arch    1=7 

77'/.The  Multiplex  Steel  plate   Floor-arch I  ^ 

7>.  Sketch    Map,    showing     Relative    Location    of    Buildings    binned    in    the 

Pittsburgh   F;re Ku 

7<).  Third-floor  Plan  of  llorne  Store,  showing  Nature  of  Steei   1'r.mie ioj 

^o.  Home  Store  Hard-tile   Floor-arcli  Construction.  .  .  .    i  05 

51.  "  "       \'ie\v  of  Daniayed   I  nterinr  of    l-'irsi   I-'loor 11,7 

52.  "  "  ''        "  "  F.xterior 170 

S^.          '•  1'artitions 17-" 

^4.  Methodist  Mook  Muilding,  Conciete  Floor-arch  C'onstruction 177 

?•..  "  "  "  \"ie\v  of  Damaged    IiHerioi 


-0.    Detail    showing    Steel     C'oiumn    Separated    from    the  Wall    it  Si;t  potts, 

St.   Paul  Building.   New  ^'ork it)*< 

>7.    Cast  Columns,  Scjuaic  and  Circular  Sections lui 

SS.        "  1   Sections I  y  I 

S<).        "  Detail  of   loin ts    i<>2 

(jo.    Steei  C'oiumn  Section,  Annies  and   Plates i  j  ; 

<li.       "  "         Channels   and  Plates 1113 

02.  Plates  and  Angles  Latticed v>\ 

(13.       "  "        /-bars n>3 

'-14.   The  Gray  Column  Sections i o? 

(15.       "        "  '•        Hracket   Cornice  lions. tc/ 

i|0.    Detail  of  Su-el-coiumn    |oim,  as  used  in  the  Central  Hank 2O'> 

()7.    Beam  Connections,  S-inch  to  id-inch  I  beams    .'07 

i)S.        "  6-inrh  t«»  12-inch  I  beams joS 


LIST   OF   ILLL'STKAl'lOXS. 


CHAPTER    VII. 

I  If;.  I'AGE 

<)(_).    Section  of  Foundation,  Central  Hank  Building 213 

100.  "        "  Lord's  Court          "         215 

101.  "        showing  Manner  of   Excavating  Pneumatic  Caisson 219 

102.  Detail  of  a  Steel  Caisson 220 

103.  Transverse  Section  of  Manhattan  Life  Foundation 221 

104.  Detail  of  Steel-beam  Grillage  Foundation 224 

CHAPTER    VIII. 

KK  Machinery-hall  Plan  of  the  Central  National  Bank  Building 230 

106.  Sectional  View  of  a  Water-tube  Boiler  for  High  Office-buildings 231 

107.  Section  of  Boiler  used  in  the  Central    Bank  Building 233 

108.  Direct-connected  Engine  and  Generator 238 

109.  Vertical  Arrangement  of  Electric  Wiring  System   in   the  Central  Bank 

Building 239 

i  10.    Diagram  of  Switchboard,  Central  Bank  Building    241 

ill.          '•           ''  Telegraph  and  Telephone  System,  Central  Bank  Building  244 

ii  2.    Plat)  of  a  Coupled  Elevator-car,  Central  Bank  Building 24'> 

113.    Hydraulic  Elevator-shaft 248 

i  14.                          Ash-hoist,  Central  Bank  Building 2511 

i  15.    Hoisting-nut  for  an  Electric  Elevator- machine 2=  r 

I 1  o.    Double-deck  Electric  Elevator-machine 252 

i  i  7.    Single-deck 253 

i  18.   Thermostatic  Valves  of  the  Webster  System  of  Steam-heating 262 

i  19.   Other  Valves  of  the  same  System 262 

1 20.  The  Thermostatic  Valves  in  Connection  with  Radiators 2(;3 

121.  Airangement  in  Boiler-room  of  the  Webster  System  of  Steam-heating   2(14 

122     Interior  View  of  the  Webster  Feed -heater 26(1 

i  23.    An  Improved  Steam -condenser  on  Roof 273 

124.  Thermostat  for  Temperature  Regulation    27=; 

125.  Thermostatic  Valve  for  Temperature  Regulation 270 

126.  General  Arrangement  of  a  Sanitary  Drinking-water  System    278 

127.  Air-compressor  as   used   for   a    Drinking-water  System  in  High  Office- 

buildings  280 

128.  Main   Commutator   Switch  and  Control  Magnets  for  Elevator  Calling- 

signal 281 

129.  Switch  Mechanism  on  Top  of  Elevator  for  Calling-signals 282 

130.  Details  of  Commutators  for  Elevator  Calling-signals 283 

i"!.    Diagram  of  Wiring  Connections  for  Elevator  Calling-signals 285 


LIST    OF  ILLUSTKATIONS.  XV 


CHAPTER    IX. 

FIG-  PACK 

132.  Wash-basin  Connections     ...    309 

133.  Diagram  of  Pipe  Connections  of  Men's  Toilet-room 309 

134.  Plan  of  Men's  Toilet-room,  Central  Bank  Building  311 

135.  Diagram  of  Water-supply,  Central  Bank  Building 312 


CHAPTER    X. 

136.  Detail  of  Elevator  Fronts,  Central  Bank  Budding 315 

137.  Ornamental  Panel-grille  Elevator   Front.  Central  Bank  Building 319 

138.  Detail  of  Fire-doors 321 

139.  Ornamental  Elevator-car,  Central  Bank  Building 323 

HO.  Lord's  Court  "        327 

141.  Detail  of  Elevator  Fronts,      "  "  "        331 

142.  "       "  "  Bank  of  Commerce  Building 335 


THE  PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF 
HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


CHAPTER  I. 

REPRESENTATIVE    HIGH    OFFICE-BUILDINGS   AND   THEIR 
DEVELOPMENT. 

INTRODUCTION. — The  closing  years  of  the  nineteenth 
century  present  to  the  inhabitants  of  the  United  States  and 
to  visiting  foreigners  a  complete  transformation,  in  our  large 
cities,  of  building-construction  methods. 

Laws  have  been  enacted  from  time  to  time  to  keep  pace 
with  the  rapid  growth  of  these  methods,  but  they  are  still 
inadequate  and  cover  only  in  a  general  way  the  requirements 
of  this  modern  and  phenomenal  growth. 

\Yhile  but  a  few  years  ago  the  building  profession  had  to 
concern  itself  merely  with  the  simpler  problems  of  construc- 
tion, such  as  the  erection  of  buildings  of  five  and  eight  stories 
and  within  100  feet  in  height,  it  is  now  called  upon  to  solve 
the  more  difficult  ones  involved  in  the  building  of  enormous 
structures  of  fifteen  to  twenty-nine  stories  and  350  feet  in 
heiefht. 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

Less  than  five  years  ago  the  conclusion  was  reached  that 
the  sixteen-story  building  was  the  limit,  but  since  that  time 
we  have  had  the  twenty-story;  and  the  most  notable  build- 
ing, for  its  size,  now  in  course  of  construction  is  being 
erected  in  Park  Row.  Including  the  towers,  it  is  to  be 
twenty-nine  stories  high,  covering  an  area  of  nearly  15,000 
square  feet,  and  in  no  part  will  it  be  less  than  twenty-five 
stories  in  height.  The  front,  facing  the  Post-office,  will  be 
twenty-seven  stories,  the  top  cornice  being  336  feet  above 
the  street-level.  The  two  flanking  towers  will  each  contain 
two  stories  to  be  used  as  offices,  the  cornice  of  the  towers 
being  355  feet  above  the  street,  and  the  top  of  the  lantern 
386  feet  above  the  same  level.  The  foundations  extend  34 
feet  below  the  street-level,  making  the  total  height  of  the 
structure  from  the  top  of  piles  to  the  top  of  lanterns  420  feet, 
the  total  dead  and  live  load  being  about  50,000  tons. 

Following  are  the  heights  of  twenty-nine  buildings  re- 
cently constructed  or  in  process  of  construction  in  Xew 
York  : 

Ivins  Syndicate  Building 29  stories,  386  feet. 

.Manhattan  Life  Building IS        "          and  tower.  345     " 

St.  Paul  Building 26 

American  Surety  Building 21 

Pulitxer  Building i(>        " 

American  Tract  Society  Building..  21 

Empire  Building 20 

Commercial  Cable  Building 20        " 

Gil  lender  Building 19        " 

Standard  Oil    Building  (remodelled)  19 

Bank  of  Commerce  Building 19 

Home  Life  Insurance   Building....  ifi 

Washington  Building 13 

\e\v  York  Life  Building 12 

S.   L.   Mitchell  I->tate   Building 15 

Mutual  Life   Building 14 

Manhattan    Hotel id 

I'r-'dnce  Exchange  Building 9        "          and  tower,  225 

Bowling  Green  Building io  --4 


Fie;.   2.- 


1'HK   KMTIKK   Hi  ILIUM;,    Ni-.w   YOKK. 

(Kimbaii  \  'I  hompsoTi,  An.  lntfi  t~. ' 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  ^ 

New  Netherlands  Hotel 16  stories,  220  feet. 

Central  Bank  Building 15  "  219  " 

Hudson  Building 16  "  218  " 

Lord's  CourtBuilding 15  "  214  " 

Johnston  Building 15  "  212  " 

Syndicate  Building 15  "  207  " 

Continental  Ins.  Co.  Building 14  "  215  " 

Postal  Telegraph  Building 13  "  192  " 

Havemeyer  Building 14  "  192  " 

Mutual  Reserve  Building 13  "  184  " 

Silk  Exchange  Building 13  "  180  " 

CHICAGO'S   RKPRESE.NTATIVE  HIGH  BUILDINGS  OVER   180  FEET. 

Masonic  Temple 20  stories,  273  feet. 

To  apex  of  roof 300    " 

Auditorium,  with  tower 17  "  265     " 

Fisher  Building 18  "  and  attic,  235     " 

Old  Colony  Building 17  ''  213     " 

Katahdin  &  Wachussetts   Building.  17  "  203  ft.  6  in. 

Unity  Building 17  "  210  feet. 

Marquette  Building 16  "  207     " 

Monadnock  Building 16  "  215     " 

Ashland  Block 16  "  200  ft.  7  in. 

The  New  Great  Northern  Building.  16  "  200  feet. 

Manhattan  Building 16  "  197     " 

Reliance  Building 14  200     " 

Security  Building 14  200    " 

Title  and  Trust  Building 16  198     " 

Woman's  Temple 13  "  197     " 

Champlain  Building 15  169     " 

CAUSE  or  THE  MODERN  OFFICE-BUILDING  DEVELOP- 
MENT.— While  the  enormous  appreciation  in  land  values  is 
mainly  due  to  the  concentration  of  vast  commercial  interests 
within  restricted  areas,  at  the  same  time  it  is  certain  that  in 
regard  to  the  relation  of  those  values  to  the  height  of  build- 
ings the  effect  has  in  some  measure  become  the  cause. 

This  state  of  things  in  Xe\v  York  is  largely  brought 
about  by  its  rapidly  developing'  and  changing  character. 
The  island  is  so  narrow  and  its  trade  centre  so  near  one  end. 
that  the  tendencv  of  each  trade  is  not  onlv  to  llock  to  one 


THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

spot,  but  to  crowd  as  near  this  centre  as  possible,  thus  mak- 
ing the  price  of  land  down-town  simply  tremendous. 

In  order,  therefore,  to  secure  an  adequate  return  on  an 
investment  in  such  land  more  floor-space  must  be  obtained. 
The  greatest  increase,  as  was  to  have  been  expected,  has 
taken  place  upon  property  which  fronts  on  Broadway,  or 
that  lies  within  the  banking  district  in  the  neighborhood  of 
\Yali,  Pine,  and  Xassau  streets  and  Park  Row.  As  instances 
of  this  may  be  mentioned  that  the  lot  upon  which  the  Man- 
hattan Life  Building  stands  was  purchased  for  $157.02  per 
square  foot;  that  Xo.  141  Broadway  cost  $181.12  per  square 
foot;  and  that  before  they  could  even  dig  the  foundations 
for  the  American  Surety  Building  the  syndicate  had  to  pay 
for  the  site  at  the  rate  of  from  $176  to  $282  per  square  foot. 

ELEVATORS,  STEEL  AND  IRON,  SOLVE  THE  PROBLEM. — 
To  place  buildings  of  ordinary  height  upon  such  property 
would  necessitate  the  charging  of  enormous  rents  to  derive 
an  income  on  the  ground  values.  Owners  were  therefore 
compelled  to  erect  tall  buildings,  give  more  room  and  get 
more  rent:  and  the  higher  the  building  the  less  desirable 
the  rooms  became,  for  tenants  would  not  mount  stairs  in 
buildings  of  over  five  stories.  Then  steam,  hydraulic,  and 
electric  elevators  were  invented,  and  at  once  the  problem 
was  solved. 

Then  again,  with  the  timber  construction,  in  case  of  fire  it 
was  impossible  to  avert  the  destruction  which  inevitably  oc- 
curred, and  heavy  masonry  walls  were  required  to  support 
the  superstructure.  It  was  therefore  necessary  that  the  tim- 
ber construction  be  replaced  by  fire-proof  materials,  and  the 
heavy  walls  by  steel  and  iron,  to  protect  the  building  from 
fire  and  increase  the  area  of  rentable  space. 

This  method  once  adopted,  it  soon  culminated  in  what 
is  called  '"  Skeleton  Constructed  Buildings." 


FIG.  4. 
POSTAL  TELEGRAPH  HI.DG.,  N.  Y.  HOME  LII-K  INS.  Co.  Hi  no..  N.  Y. 

(Geo.  Kdw.  Harding  &  Gooch,  Architects.)  (N.  I.e.  Hum  ,V  Sons.  Ar.  hitcc:- 

9 


I'lIK     BiMVIIM,     (iKKI-.N     Bill. DING,     N  K\V     \<>KK. 


FIG.    q.— 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  13 

ARTISTICALLY  CONSIDERED. — It  is  not  easy  to  imaem^ 

•*  o 

the  feelings  of  a  New  Yorker  exiled  for  a  period  of  ten  or 
twelve  years — no  more — who  is  returning-  to  his  native  land 
by  one  of  the  ocean  steamships. 

As  he  looks  about  from  the  deck  of  the  vessel  as  it  steams 
up  the  bay,  the  first  glance  that  he  obtains  of  the  lower  part 
of  Manhattan  Island  will  probably  be,  if  he  has  not  been  fore- 
warned, the  greatest  surprise  of  his  life. 

Indeed  it  is  a  beautiful  sight.  Looked  at  from  any  point 
in  the  upper  bay  south  of  the  Battery  there  can  hardly  be  a 
more  beautiful  city  in  the  world  than  Xew  York  is  at  the 
present  time. 

Where  Broadway  stretches  away  directly  in  front,  as  the 
centre  of  the  picture,  is  there  a  more  perfectly  carried  sky- 
line, a  more  harmonious  blending  of  color,  or  a  nobler  ap- 
pearance of  the  useful  and  the  beautiful  combined  than  these 
buildings  that  reach  from  river  to  river  ? 

\Yhen  we  come  to  details  there  is  indeed  much  to  criti- 
cise and  not  a  little  to  condemn;  but  the  details  are  unim- 
portant as  compared  with  the  whole,  and  we  may  safely 
affirm  that  there  is  no  problem  of  greater  difficulty  presented 
to  the  architects  of  the  nineteenth  century  than  the  artistic 
designing  of  these  buildings. 

The  designing  of  such  lofty  structures  is  no  doubt  a 
purely  resthetical  matter,  but  should  be  governed  by  practi- 
cal considerations. 

When  architects  design  a  commercial  building  that  is  a 
positive  ornament  to  the  city  and  that  is  really  picturesque 
in  outline  and  effect,  so  that  we  may  imagine  an  artist  de- 
signed it.  to  paint  it  as  a  whole,  we  should  be  grateful. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  to  enter  into  the  question  of  this 
modern  use  of  styles,  but  to  confine  the  subject  to  the  plan- 
nine:  and  construction  of  such  buildings. 


14  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

This  modern  construction  hampers,  to  a  great  extent,  the 
free  expression  of  artistic  ideas,  and  we  leave  this  introduc- 
tion quoting"  the  remarks  from  an  able  writer  of  one  of  the 
leading  magazines  : 

"  Certain  critics,  and  very  thoughtful  ones,  have  ad- 
vanced the  theory  that  the  true  prototype  of  the  tall  office- 
building  is  the  classical  column,  consisting  of  base,  shaft,  and 
capital. 

"  Other  theorizers,  assuming  a  mystical  symbolism  as  a 
guide,  quote  the  many  trinities  in  nature  and  in  art,  and  the 
beauty  and  conclusiveness  of  such  trinity  and  unity,  the  day 
subdivided  into  morning,  noon,  and  night. 

"  Others,  of  purely  intellectual  temperament,  hold  that 
such  a  design  should  be  in  the  nature  of  a  logical  statement; 
it  should  have  a  beginning,  a  middle,  and  an  ending,  each 
clearly  defined. 

"  ( )thers.  seeking  their  examples  and  justification  in  the 
vegetable  kingdom,  urge  that  such  a  design  shall,  above  all 
things,  be  organic.  They  quote  the  suitable  flower,  with  its 
bunch  of  leaves  at  the  earth  and  its  long  graceful  stem  carry- 
ing the  gorgeous  single  flower. 

( )thers  still,  more  susceptible  to  the  power  of  a  unit 
than  the  grace  of  a  trinity,  say  that  such  a  design  should  be 
struck  out  at  a  blow,  as  though  by  a  blacksmith  or  by  a 
might}'  Jove,  or  should  be  thought-born,  as  was  Minerva, 
full-grown." 

All  these  critics  and  theorists  agree,  however,  positively, 
unequivocally,  in  this — that  the  tall  office-buildings  should 
not,  must  not.  be  made  a  field  for  the  displav  of  architectural 
knowledge  in  the  encyclopaedic  sense:  that  too  much  learn- 
ing is  fully  as  dangerous,  obnoxious,  as  too  little  learning: 
that  miscellany  is  abhorrent  to  their  sense:  that  the  sixteen- 
story  office-building  must  not  consist  of  sixteen  separate. 


Hi  I 

ifiil 


FK;.  (). — GIM.KNPKK  Mrn.DiNt;,  \K\V  VUKK. 

(Bciy  &  Clark,  Aicliiuxts.) 


?,'«"Ij_ 

l^^l^^irrfi 

T      iiTrft  *?      :  _*,i 


FK;.    7. — COMMKKCIAI    C'Aiii.i:    Hi  ii. DIM;,    Ni-.u    V"KK. 

((it-o.   ICiiw.   Harding  cV  (loin  h.  .A  tcii  itfct>.  > 

17 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  19 

distinct,  and  unrelated  buildings  piled  one  on  the  other  until 
the  top  of  the  building  is  reached. 

While  the  artistic  side  of  the  office-building  is  receiving- 
considerable  attention,  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  it  is  a 
business  venture,  in  which  the  rents  shall  return  a  net  profit 
on  the  investment. 

It  is  in  many  cases  an  exceedingly  costly  structure,  and 
\ve  should  confine  its  designing  to  an  attractive  exterior  and 
a  well-planned  interior  that  will  attract  tenants  and  excite 
favorable  criticism. 

The  prodigious  growth  in  the  number  of  these  large 
office-buildings  in  the  principal  cities  of  this  country  is  sim- 
ply phenomenal.  They  have  become  popular  with  in- 
vestors ;  whether  they  pay  or  not  the  experienced  owner 
and  builder  alone  can  tell.  In  a  majority  of  examples. — as 
those  owned  by  great  corporations,  viz.,  the  Manhattan  Life 
Insurance  Co.,  the  Metropolitan  Life  Insurance  Co.,  the 
New  York  Life  Insurance  Co..  and  the  American  Surety 
Co.,  all  of  Xew  York, — being  fitted  up  in  palatial  style,  they 
are,  without  doubt,  used  as  advertisements  in  displaying  the 
wealth  of  their  owners. 

A  LIMIT  TO  THE  PRKSS  DISCUSSIONS  AGAINST  HIGH 
BUILDINGS. — The  movement  in  our  cities  against  the  further 
erection  of  tall  buildings  has  become  so  decided,  and  the 
press  criticisms  so  one-sided,  that  the  author  cannot  help 
([noting  the  following  article  on  "Limit  the  1  )iscussi<>n." 
from  Architecture  and  HniliJiiii;,  February.  iSgj: 

"  It  has  occurred  to  me  that  this  discussion  of  the  '  sky- 
scraper '  question  has  a  ridiculous  side — ridiculous  at  least 
to  the  better  informed.  I  presume  this  same  thought 
has  occurred  to  many  architects,  and  it  may  be  this  ap- 
parent irresponsibility  which  has  deterred  some  one  from 
making  serious  answer  to  some  of  the  many  queer  state- 


2O  7 'HE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

ments  that  have  appeared  in  print,  and  seem  to  be  received 
with  credulity  by  the  press,  and  possibly  the  public.  That 
a  reasonable  investigation  and  discussion  of  the  question  is 
proper,  and  that  a  reasonable  limiting  of  the  height 
of  structures  is  a  desired  result,  seems  to  be  an  accepted 
proposition ;  but  it  occurs  to  me  that  to  put  forward  weak  and 
puerile,  not  to  say  utterly  unfounded,  statements  does  not 
add  to  the  argument,  but  rather  detracts  in  the  minds  of  the 
thinking  from  the  seriousness  of  the  question.  For  example, 
a  statement  appeared  recently  in  a  local  journal  stating  that 
a  '  tenant  in.  the  Tract  Society  Building  was  responsible  for 
the  assertion  that  the  reliability  of  a  timepiece  was  affected 
by  the  vibration  of  this  building,  and  in  a  degree  in  propor- 
tion to  the  height,  and  that  in  fact  on  the  top  floor  a  clock 
had  actually  been  known  to  stop.'  This  discussion  went  so 
far  as  actually  to  foretell  the  unhappy  condition  of  affairs  if 
it  were  necessary  to  abandon  the  use  of  pendulum-clocks 
and  depend  upon  some  other  form  of  clock  mechanism. 
Xow  it  happens  to  be  the  fact  that  in  the  office  of  D.  H. 
Burnham.  architect,  of  Chicago,  a  most  careful  and  methodi- 
cal watch  had  been  kept,  for  over  eight  years,  of  the  struc- 
tures which  have  been  built  under  his  supervision,  for  this 
and  any  other  contingency.  I  doubt  if  a  severer  test  has 
ever  been  recorded  than  that  of  eighty-five  miles  an  hour  for 
five  minutes  at  a  time,  which  is  on  record  in  Mr.  Burnham's 
office,  and  this  was  not  perceptible  within  any  of  the  struc- 
tures. 

"  Mr.  L.  Stebbins,  of  Chicago,  is  responsible  for  several 
tests  made  when  the  wind  was  blowing  over  eighty  miles  an 
hour,  in  the  Monadnock  and  in  the  Pontiac  buildings,  two  of 
Chicago's  tallest.  This  report  shows  the  alarming  move- 
ment or  vibration  of  one  quarter  of  one  inch,  and  of  seven 
sixteenths  of  one  inch.  I  am  at  a  loss  to  appreciate  the  mo- 


Fui.   8. — A.MKKICAN   SrKK.rv    HIILDIM;,    \K\V    VOKK. 
(Bruce  1'ricc,  Architect.) 


9.  —  MANHATTAN   LIKK    INSCKANCK    Hi 
(  Kimtuiil  &  Thiimpson,  Atvhuei 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  2$ 

live  of  such  statements  as  that  the  swaying  of  the  Tract 
Building  in  this  city  was  one  foot  out  of  plumb-line.  An- 
other story  is  of  floating  pontoons  on  the  top  story  of  a  tall 
building  on  Union  Square,  and  that  certain  heavy  pieces  of 
machinery  were  launched  upon  these  pontoons,  these  pon- 
toons being  elaborately  chained  and  anchored  to  the  walls,— 
this  all  being  done  to  prevent  the  catastrophe  of  the  machin- 
ery being  hurled  bodily  through  the  walls.  It  does  not 
seem  proper  that  this  alarming  tale  should  have  been  started 
upon  its  misleading  journey,  and  really  not  credible  that  it 
should  have  been  republished,  at  this  writing,  no  less  than 
five  times. 

It  must  be  admitted  that  the  wind  has  considerably 
more  vigor  in  Chicago  and  other  Western  cities  than  in  this 
vicinity,  and  it  must  not  be  admitted  that  there  may  be  su- 
perior features  of  construction  through  which  vibration  or 
other  contingencies  may  have  been  overcome,  and  which  are 
known  and  practised  by  our  Chicago  fellows  and  lost  on  this 
city.  There  is  this  view  to  be  taken  of  these  misstatements 
— the  architects  of  to-day  have  quite  fully  demonstrated  to 
the  world  their  ability  to  cope  with  every  question  in  modern 
building  construction;  and  it  should  not  be  passed  without 
a  protest  that  any  modern  practitioner  would  lend  himself 
to  the  erection  of  a  building  in  which  uncertainty  seemed  to 
reign  supreme.  Another  extract  from  a  Doston  paper  reads 
'  A  Fresh  Danger  '  (fresh  danger  is  good)  '  from  High  I'uild- 
ings."  There  are  thirty-two  hundred  buildings  in  Xew  York 
that  are  unsafe,  the  article  goes  on  at  length  to  say.  and  lays 
the  blame  upon  the  sky-scraper.  1  cannot  but  feel  that  a 
correction  should  have  come  from  another  source  before 
this  time,  but,  as  it  still  stands  unconnected,  1  will  take  the 
liberty  to  suggest  that  this  is  a  misapplication  which,  for- 
getting the  ridiculous  side,  would  be  outrageous.  The 


26  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

buildings  referred  to — that  is,  about  thirty-one  hundred  and 
ninety-nine  of  them — are  the  ruins  of  a  past  age,  like  cen- 
tenarians that  they  are,  tottering  through  their  last  days,  no 
one,  while  yet  they  have  strength  to  stand,  seeming  willing 
to  offer  a  friendly  push  to  their  end.  From  another  journal 
I  read  that  '  these  structures  have  so  often  proven  danger- 
ous to  life  and  limb.'  ^ 

"  I  will  risk  at  first  blush  the  statement  that  in  no  other 
advance  of  modern  times  has  life  and  limb  been  so  remark- 
ably safe  as  to  the  occupants  and  patrons  of  a  modern  steel 
building.  The  climax  is  reached,  however,  in  a  cupping- 
glass  tale  appearing  in  a  local  journal  with  elaborate  illustra- 
tions. The  sublimity  of  ridiculousness  is  here,  if  ever, 
reached.  An  elaborate  essay  on  sanitation  or  sanitary  en- 
gineering might  be  required  for  the  lay  reader's  protection 
against  this  dangerous  discussion,  but  if  by  chance  this 
should  reach  the  eye  of  some  nervous  reader  of  that  awful 
tale,  it  might  be  well  to  spend  just  ten  minutes  in  an  ex- 
amination of  the  toilet  arrangements  of  any  properly  con- 
structed modern  building,  bearing  in  mind  the  basic  prin- 
ciples of  ventilation.  Then  before  leaving  such  a  building 
a  glance  at  a  modern  basement  or  sub-basement  is  the  only 
answer  that  need  be  made  to  the  '  ground  dampness.'  In- 
these  basements  is  the  mechanical  equipment  of  the  building, 
machinery  of  the  most  delicate  character,  to  which  the  least 
dampness  would  be  demoralizing.  Xo  part  of  the  building 
is  more  carefully  protected  from  such  danger.  I  will  suggest 
that  there  might  be  some  limit  to  these  wild  and  effervescent 
stories,  and  rather  should  these  questions  be  left  to  tlie  con- 
sideration of  those  whose  life  study  and  work  fit  them  for  its 

*  This  item  seems  to  refer  to  elevator  accidents.  We  have  had  some, 
but  we  must  consider  that  the  seven  thousand  elevators  of  New  York  carry 
more  than  a  million  passengers  daily. 


FIG.  io.  —  AMERICAN    TRACT   SOCIETY    Mm. DIM;,    \F.\V    YUKK. 
(R.  H.  RnbciiMjn,  Ar^  hitccl.i 


„.,     _     -,     ,  ,n 

bW  tab  ••  •«  h« 

~  bit- Lit- 

yy 


Fir..    II.  —  IVINS    SYNI'Ii'ATK     HllI.lMNi;,     X  I- \V     \'<>KK. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  31 

proper  treatment — the  architects  and  their  able  co-workers, 
the  specialists  in  engineering.  No  good  can  come  of  this 
wild  and  disconnected  display  of  ignorance. 

'  There  are  really  but  two  questions  seriously  demand- 
ing consideration — the  proper  protection  of  the  steel  frame 
against  elements  of  danger,  decay  and  fire,  and  the  obstruc- 
tion of  the  light  from  surrounding  properties. 

"  I  trust  that  questions  like  the  inadequateness  of  the 
sewer  system,  the  congestion  of  travel  on  sidewalks,  and 
proper  supply  of  water  in  event  of  fire  will  be  met  by  modern 
men  of  modern  minds." 

DANGER  FROM  FIRE  ix  HIGH  BUILDINGS. — Architects 
and  engineers  should  provide  for  the  uses  to  which  a  build- 
ing is  to  be  put  up,  and  remove  from  it  every  possible  danger 
from  fire.  They  know  from  the  beginning  that  there  is 
nothing  that  will  not  undergo  change  of  form  through  con- 
tact with  heat,  though  the  resistance  to  change  is  different 
in  the  various  cases.  Brick  is  one  of  the  very  best  protect- 
ives  against  fire,  and  tire-proof  buildings  are  made  in  Kurope 
by  vaulting,  but  this  is  only  possible  in  comparatively  lo\v 
buildings.  The  requirements  of  a  greater  thickness  of  brick 
wall  in  proportion  to  the  height  of  the  buildings  made  it 
necessary  that  some  other  material  should  be  found  to  carry 
the  floors  before  our  high  buildings  could  be  thought  ot. 
But  the  fire-resisting  qualities  of  brick,  or  the  clay  of  which 
it  is  made,  are  shown  not  onlv  by  the  degree  of  heat  to  which 
it  is  subjected  in  making,  but  also  by  its  use  in  great  furnaces. 
where  intense  heat  is  generated  to  melt  metal.  '1  he  use  of 
brick  being  for  the  reason  stated  impracticable,  the  architect 
selected  iron  for  his  structure:  but  as  iron  would  be  likely 
to  warp  and  bend  and  lose  its  power  of  support  under  the 
heat  that  could  be  created  in  a  burning  building,  he  had  to 
look  around  for  a  protective,  and  he  found  it  in  the  kitchen- 


32  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

stove.  The  principle  that  protects  the  inner  sides  of  the 
cooking-range  from  the  burning  coal  with  which  they  are  al- 
ways in  contact  is  the  same  as  that  which  is  applied  to  the 
iron  in  buildings.  Neither  a  kitchen-range  nor  a  building 
could  be  constructed  wholly  of  fire-brick,  nor  for  practical 
purposes  wholly  of  iron;  but  either  may  be  made  of  iron, 
and  made  practical  in  use  by  the  protection  of  fire-brick. 

This  principle  of  construction  and  protection  has  been 
proven  to  be  sound  not  only  in  the  small  degree  furnished 
by  the  kitchen-range,  but  in  the  greater  degree  furnished  by 
the  burning  building.  One  of  the  most  striking  examples  of 
this  fact  is  the  fire  that  occurred  several  years  ago  in  the 
\Yestern  Union  Building.  This  fire  broke  out  in  the  battery- 
room,  and  was  carried  to  the  operating-room  on  the  next 
floor.  In  the  battery-room  were  35,000  cups,  each  contain- 
ing an  inch  of  sperm-oil,  always  in  use,  and  handled  by  boys, 
who  had  in  the  course  of  time  spilled  a  great  deal  of  oil  on 
the  floor,  so  that  it  was  thoroughly  soaked,  as  were  also  the 
white-pine  racks  in  which  the  cups  were  kept.  Finer 
kindling  could  not  be  imagined  than  a  room  so  prepared. 
From  the  battery-room  a  wire  ran  up  through  the  floor  to 
each  of  the  many  operating-tables  in  the  room  above,  so  that 
there  were  some  hundreds  of  flues  to  convey  the  fire  from  the 
room  below  to  that  above.  The  ceiling  of  the  upper  room 
\vas  covered  by  a  network  of  wires  insulated  by  a  rubber  cov- 
ering. A  better  combustion-chamber  could  not  be  devised. 
As  may  be  imagined,  the  fire  that  raged  in  these  rooms  was 
a  very  fierce  one.  The  beams  in  the  floor  between  the  t\vo 
rooms  were  protected  on  the  top  by  a  layer  of  concrete,  the 
feet  of  the  beams  were  not  protected  at  all:  but  only  a  fe\v  of 
these  beams  were  deflected,  and  none  showed  signs  of  impor- 
tant weakness,  while  an  unprotected  iron  gallery  and  stairway 
were  twisted  all  out  of  shape.  Fires  have  occurred  in  mod- 


Fi<;.    13. — TIIK  NATIONAL   HANK  »v  CD.MMKKCK    HriLiuNc,,   NK\V   YORK. 

i  I.   B.  Baker.  Architect.) 


Fit;.    14. — ST.   JA.MKS    Hi  II.DI.M,,    NK\V   YORK. 
(Bruce  Price,  Architect.) 

37 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  39 

ern  fire-proof  buildings,  but  have  burnt  themselves  out  with- 
out doing  any  more  than  destroying  the  furniture  and  trim 
and  bringing  down  the  plaster,  leaving  exposed  but  unhurt 
the  fire-proof  brick.  All  the  material  in  an  ordinary  office 
cannot  create  enough  heat  to  break  through  the  fire-proof 
partitions  or  the  ceilings.  There  are,  of  course,  exceptions; 
but  upon  close  inspection  there  will  be  found  some  inherent 
defect  in  the  construction. 

THE    RAPID    ERECTION    OF    HIGH    BUILDINGS. 

In  this  modern  office-building  era  there  is  nothing  more 
wonderful  than  the  fact  that  we  are  able  to  accomplish  now  in 
a  few  months  the  erection  and  completion  of  structures  which 
formerly  took  over  a  year.  A  ten-story  building  was,  only  a 
few  years  back,  considered  a  fair  year's  work,  but  at  the  pres- 
ent time  it  can  be  completed  and  tenanted  in  six  months. 
and  a  twenty-five-story  building  finished  in  twelve. 

This,  of  course,  is  taken  from  the  time  that  the  founda- 
tions are  begun,  the  plans  having  been  prepared  by  the  archi- 
tect two  or  three  months  previous. 

The  two  great  factors  which  enable  us  to  accomplish  so 
much  in  such  a  short  time  are  undoubtedly  the  elevator  and 
the  skeleton  system  of  construction.  The  elevator  is  the 
chief  economical  device  which  renders  these  lofty  buildings 
also  accessible. 

The  skeleton  steel  frame  is  the  main  support,  and  it  can 
be  erected  in  all  kinds  of  weather,  and,  as  is  often  the  case, 
two  and  sometimes  three  story  columns  are  raised  at  once. 
and  in  a  few  days  the  stories  are  complete, ready  for  the  floor- 
arches  and  brick  walls. 

This  system  is  not  only  a  rapid  one.  but  the  lower  por- 
tions of  a  building  can  be,  if  desired,  practically  completed 
before  the  upper  parts. 


4O  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

When  the  walls  are  carried  upon  girders  independently 
at  each  floor,  it  is  possible  to  complete  any  story  without 
reference  to  what  is  above  or  below,  and,  as  usually  happens, 
the  lower  floors  are  the  last  to  be  given  their  complete 
form. 

This  question  of  speed  in  erection  is  most  important. 
There  being  a  large  amount  of  capital  invested,  there  should 
be  but  one  season  lost  before  a  return  is  effected  upon  this 
investment. 

RAPID  ERECTION  OF  THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  BUILDING, 
NEW  YORK. — Quoting  from  an  article  in  the  Engineering 
Magazine,  Mr.  Francis  Kimball,  the  architect  of  the  Man- 
hattan Life  Insurance  Building,  states  that  "  the  building 
was  completed  in  thirteen  and  two-thirds  months,  the  time 
consumed  being  divided  as  follows:  Foundations  ready  for 
the  superstructure,  five  and  two-thirds  months;  superstruc- 
ture, eight  months.  The  roof,  or  eighteenth  tier  of  beams, 
was  readied  in  exactly  three  months  from  the  time  when  the 
foundations  were  ready  to  which  to  set  the  first  piece  of  steel 
composing  the  bolsters  that  support  the  cantilever  system. 

'  1  he  time  spent  in  preparing  the  foundations  may  seem, 
to  those  unfamiliar  with  the  work,  scarcely  consistent  with 
the  progress  afterward  made;  but  the  architects  found  that, 
in  view  of  the  unsatisfactory  nature  of  the  ground,  composed 
largely  of  quicksand,  the  usual  methods  employed  were  in- 
adequate for  the  purpose  of  the  foundation  to  sustain  the 
great  concentrated  loads,  and  they  thereupon  decided  to 
reach  bed-rock,  57  feet  below  Broadway.  The  pneumatic 
process  was  introduced,  such  as  is  usually  done  in  sinking 
bridge-piers  to  rock.'' 

The  magnitude  of  the  work  may  be  better  understood 
by  reducing  it  to  cubic  yards  of  masonry.  The  substructure, 
which  starts  on  bed-rock  and  continues  up  to  the  level  of  the 


FIG.    15.  — MAMJNIC   TKMIT,K,    CIUCAC.O,    ILL. 

I  Burnlum  &  Root,  Architects.) 


FIG.   1 6. — Oi.n  COI.ONY   HIILDIM,,  CHICAGO   ILL, 

(Holabird  &  Roche.  Aiclmecis.) 


HIGH   OFFICE-B  UILDINGS. 


45 


cellar  floor,  consists  of  fifteen  piers,  varying  in  size  from  9 
feet  in  diameter  to  21  feet  6  inches  by  25  feet  square. 

The  caissons,  made  of  steel,  correspond  in  size  to  the 
piers  the\"  sustain,  and  are  i  i  feet  in  height. 

These  caissons  are  filled  with  concrete,  and  contain  alto- 


Fir,.  17.  —  BROADWAY  FRONT,  XOVF.MHKK  iS. — MANHATTAN'   I. MI:    l!i  ILIUM;. 

gether  12(10  cubic  yards.      The  number  of  bricks  used  in  the 
piers  amount  to  1,500.000. 

The  superstructure,  when  once  started,  proceeded  rap- 
idly, the  rate  of  progress  being  shown  by  the  illustrations 
given. 


46 


THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


The  first  six  stories  of  the  iron  frame  were  completed  on 
October  17,  1893;  one  month  later,  November  18,  the  fifth- 
story  stonework  and  fourteenth-story  steel  frame  were  com- 
pleted. (See  the  illustration.  Fig.  17,  which  shows  the 
Broadway  front,  and  Fig.  18,  the  New  Street  front.) 


FIG.  iS. — NEW  STREET  FRONT,  NOVEMBER  18. — MANHATTAN  LIFE  Brn.nixG. 

On  January  12  the  work  was  completed,  as  shown  by 
Figs.  19  and  20,  and  the  building  was  practically  completed 
in  March,  as  shown  by  the  illustrations.  Figs.  21  and  22,  the 
tower  still  remaining  to  be  covered  with  copper. 

RAPID  ERECTION  OF  THE  FISHER  BUILDING,  CHICAGO.— 
The  Fisher  Building  of  Chicago  (Fig.  23)  is  an  example  of 


HIGH   OFFICE-B  UILDINGS 


47 


rapid  workmanship.        It   is  practically   a  building  without' 
walls.      The  total  number  of  bricks  used  in  the   whole  was 
only  225,000,  and  these  were  employed  in  backing  up  and 
strengthening  parts  of  the  terra-cotta  of  the  front.        Only 


Flii.    I<>  —  \K\vSTRKKTFRONT,   JANUARY   12.  —  MANHATTAN    LlM-:     H 

two  bricklayers  were  employed  at  any  lime  on   thi>  pan   »n 
the  work. 

The  Fisher  lUiildiug  was  designed  by  I).  11.  lluniham  tS: 
Co..  Architects,  and  is  situated  on  the  shallow  block'  between 
Dearborn  Street  and  Plymouth  Place,  fronting  on  both  of 
these,  and  having  its  south  front  on  \  an  l>ureu  Street. 


48 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


The  front  on  Van  Buren  Street  is  70  ieet  6  inches,  and 
the  fronts  on  Dearborn  Street  and  Plymouth  Place  are  100 
feet  each.  The  height  is  235  feet  from  the  sidewalk  to  the 
top  of  cornice.  \Yithin  these  dimensions  it  contains  eighteen 
stories  and  an  attic.  Its  cubic  area  is  1,960,000  feet  from  the 


Fit;.  20. — HROAIAVAY   FRONT,   JANUARY   12. — MANHATTAN   LIFE   Bi  II.IHNC. 


foundation,  and  it  cost   about  $575,000,   or  very   nearly   30 
cents  per  cubic  foot. 

The  illustration.  Fig.  24,  represents  the  starting  of  the 
columns,  Oct.  12,  1895:  Fig.  25,  the  second  and  part  of  the 
third-story  set;  Fig.  26,  taken  Oct.  26,  the  seventh  and  part 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


49 


of  the  eighth  story  set;  Fig.  27,  the  fourteenth-story  set,  and 
the  front  started  at  fourth  story  and  the  floor-arches  in  on 
the  sixth  story.  Fig.  28  represents  the  roof  on  and  the 
fronts  up  to  the  twelfth  story.  This  view  was  taken  Xov.  26. 
To  make  the  above  clear,  from  the  day  of  signing  the 


FIG.  2i.— NEW  STREET  FRONT,    MARCH  2. — MANHATTAN  LI?E  Bni.niNG. 

Stonework  Completed. 

contract,  June  27.  1895.  to  the  day  the  llrsi  tenant  moved  in. 
April  23,  i8</>,  was  nearly  ten  months;  but  the  actual  work- 
ing time,  from  the  time  the  superstructure  was  started  until 
the  final  completion  of  the  building,  was  only  a  tritle  over  six 


50  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

months  and  a  half.       The  following  table  gives  the  exact 
dates  : 


1895. 

June  27.      Contract  signed. 
July  3.      Ground  broken. 


^  IBuS' 


.-\ugust.      Commenced  driving  piles  and  started  founda- 
tion over  piles  and  concrete. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDIXGS.  51 

September.      Piling-,  concrete,  and  steel  foundation  com- 
pleted. 

Oct.  3.      First  piece  of  vertical  steel  started. 

Oct.   12.     First  floor-beams  set. 

Xov.   12.      Highest  piece  of  steel  on  building  set. 

Xov.  25.      Roof  set  and  under  water-proof  cover. 

Dec.  10.     All  hollow-tile  floor-arches  set. 

Dec.  12.     Contract  let  for  interior  marble-work. 

Dec.  25.     Contract  let  for  glass  mosaic  ceilings. 


1896. 

Jan.  2.  Complete  details  drawings  for  interior  marble- 
work  received. 

April  23.      First  tenant  moved  in. 

May  i.  Marble  and  mosaic  work  completed  and  build- 
ing readv  for  tenants. 

An  examination  of  the  above  will  show  that  there  were 
some  delays  in  the  building.  The  first  was  due  to  the  failure 
to  receive  structural  steel  in  September,  1895.  But  it  shows 
that  the  whole  of  the  steel  skeleton  above  the  first  iloor  was 
set  between  Oct.  12  and  Xov.  12.  Xineteen  stories,  includ- 
ing the  attic,  were  set  in  twenty-six  davs,  live  davs  being  lost 
between  (  Vt.  12  and  Xov.  12  by  bad  weather,  when  men  could 
not  work  in  the  open  air.  During  the  whole  lime  ot  build- 
ing no  overtime  or  night-work  was  done.  I  he  entire  work 
was  accomplished  by  careful  attention  to  detail--  and  intel- 
ligent division  of  labor. 

RAPID  KRFCTIOX  OF  TIIK  RKLIAXCF  BriLnixc.  CHI- 
CAGO.— The  Reliance  Building,  containing  fourteen  stories, 
was  another  building  of  Chicago  rapidly  erected,  the  s'.eel 
frame  beinir  constructed  in  about  three  weeks.  See  the  two 


$2  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

illustrations,  Fig.  29  representing  the  skeleton  and  Fig.  30 
the  completed  building,  in  which  enamelled  terra-cotta  was 
used,  covering  the  entire  fronts. 

THE  PROGRESS  OF  ERECTION  OF  A  HIGH  OFFICE-BUILD- 
IXG  DESCRIBED. — There  is  probably  no  more  interesting 
subject  to  follow  than  that  of  the  different  trades  throughout 
the  erection  of  these  buildings. 

After  the  property  has  been  bought  and  plans  under  way. 
a  contract  is  made  covering  the  tearing  down  of  the  old 
buildings  to  the  curb  level  or  to  the  old  cellar  bottom  and 
clearing  away  all  rubbish  so  that  the  excavator  can  begin 
his  work  for  the  foundation  trenches  of  the  side  walls  and  the 
piers  ;  at  the  same  time  a  contract  is  made  covering  any 
shoring  or  sheath-piling  which  may  be  necessary  in  treacher- 
ous soils.  When  the  building  is  carried  below  the  adjoining 
property,  spur-bracing  and  underpinning  are  necessary. 

The  street  is  to  be  braced  and  sheath-piled,  and  bridges 
for  the  sidewalks  (about  8  or  10  feet  wide).  3  feet  above  the 
street-level,  are  to  be  furnished. 

All  the  subways,  hydrants,  lamp-posts,  gas-mains,  and 
property  belonging  to  the  city  or  private  corporations  are  to 
be  taken  care  of,  and  the  owner  is  to  be  protected  from  any 
suit  or  damage  to  any  person  or  persons  during  the  progress 
of  the  shoring  or  sheath-piling  work. 

If  the  soil  is  of  such  a  nature  that  the  foundation  must 
be  of  piles,  they  will  be  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
larger  and  about  5  inches  at  the  smaller  end.  the  length, 
being  determined  by  the  low-water  mark  and  bearing-power 
of  the  soil  through  which  they  are  driven.  They  are  usually 
placed  2  feet  to  2  feet  6  inches  centres  and  cut  off  i  foot  be- 
low the  low-water  level,  and  the  heads  covered  with  concrete 
about  18  inches  below  the  top  and  levelled  off  with  the  same 
material  to  anv  height  desired. 


.Fi'i.   23.  —  FISIIKK   Hi "ii. DIM;,   CHICAGO.    ILL. 
(Burnham  &  Co..  Architects.) 


54  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

If  the  soil  is  of  sand,  or  sand  and  gravel,  the  trenches 
must  be  tilled  with  concrete  for  the  foundations  of  the  build- 
ing: and  the  foundations  for  the  pumps  and  whatever  is  re- 
quired for  elevators,  boilers,  etc.,  may  be  made  at  a  later 
date. 

Various  schemes  of  foundations  have  been  built  to  sup- 
port these  structures. 

Upon  the  foundation-beds  the  granite  pier-stones  are 
placed  which  support  the  building.  All  the  base-stones  are 
to  be  well  bedded  and  to  be  perfectly  level  on  the  top  sur- 
faces preparatory  for  receiving  the  brickwork,  if  any.  and  the 
column  liases. 

These  stones  are  usually  18  inches  thick,  and  in  correct 
proportion  to  the  load  to  be  supported. 

The  rolling-mills  having  at  least  one  half  of  the  work  of 
the  building  finished  by  the  time  the  foundations  and  base- 
stones  are  all  set.  the  steel  frame  is  therefore  started  and  pro- 
ceeds rapidly,  at  the  rate  of  two  or  more  stories  in  each  week. 
and  at  the  same  time  the  finished  front:  stonework  is  under 
way:  and  after  four  or  five  stories  of  steel  are  set  the  brick 
masonry  is  started,  which  plan  enables  the  frame-setter  to 
keep  in  advance  of  the  other  trades.  As  far  as  possible  this 
plan  is  pursued  throughout. 

As  it  is  customary  for  the  iron-setter  to  rivet  up  all  his 
column  connections  and  do  a  great  amount  of  bolting,  every 
precaution  should  be  taken  to  see  that  the  bolt  and  rivet 
holes  are  filled  up.  as  by  crowding  the  masonry  too  close  to 
this  work  many  holes  have  been  left  without  bolts  or  rivets. 

The  arches  which  form  the  floors  of  the  building  are  set 
and  finished  as  fast  as  consistent  with  the  progress  of  the 
steel  frame,  the  walls  being  carried  along  at  the  same  time, 
while  the  window-frames  are  all  placed  in  their  proper  posi- 
tions and  secured  and  bound  in  with  masonrv. 


FK;    26.— FISHER   Brn.niNG,  Seventh  Part  of  FCiyhth  Story  Set. 


irteenth  Storv  Set. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  59 

As  we  approach  the  roof  of  the  building  with  the  steel 
frame  and  filling  in  the  floors,  the  masonry  is  making  great 
headway.  The  fronts,  which  are  usually  embellished  with 
terra-cotta  or  fine  stones,  are  following  in  great  strides  also 
toward  the  roof.  The  plumber  has  started  at  the  basement 
with  his  line  of  waste  and  vent  pipes,  and  the  leaders  are 
being  set.  so  that  when  the  roof  is  covered  with  concrete  and 
waterproofing  the  water  will  be  carried  off. 

l~p  to  this  time  all  the  material  for  the  building  has  been 
carried  to  the  various  floors  with  the  ordinary  hod-hoist,  of 
which  there  may  be  three  or  four. 

After  the  roof  is  protected  all  the  floor-arches  are  set, 
and  the  carpenter  has  laid  out  the  door  and  window  studs  if 
of  wood,  and  the  iron  contractor  if  of  iron,  so  that  the  terra- 
cotta tile  partitions  are  being  set  rapidly  throughout  the  en- 
tire building. 

\Ve  must  not  forget  the  fact  that  a  temporary  stairwav 
is  to  be  put  in  the  building  for  the  use  of  the  mechanics  and 
laborers.  This  is  made  when  the  floors  are  filled  up  to  the 
fourth  storv.  and  is  constructed  of  rough-dressed  -prucc  lum- 
ber, the  stringers  3  by  I  _'  inches,  with  cleats  nailed  to  them 
for  support  of  treads,  the  treads  being  2  by  10  inch  plank-. 

The  rail  is  2  by  3  inches  and  placed  on  each  -ide  01 
strings,  with  upright  braces  _'  bv  3  niche-,  spaced  about  5 
feel  apart. 

The  carpenters  are  also  laving  the  ^  bv  4  inch  '"ough 
spruce  sleepers  at  the  same  lime  a-  the  studding.  I  he-e 
sleepers  are  bevelled  and  set  |S  inches  on  centres,  and  are 
anchored  to  the  top  flange  of  the  floor-beams  with  iron  or 
wooden  clamps. 

I'pon  the  sleepers  a  rough  flooring  ot  tongued-and- 
grooved  board-  are  secured.  I  he  corridors  and  toilet- 
rooms  have  no  sleepers  or  rough  flooring;  they  are  uvner- 


60  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

ally  furnished  with  mosaic  or  marble  blocks  set  in  cement, 
under  which  a  form  of  concrete  is  laid. 

At  this  time  in  the  process  of  the  erection  of  the  building 
the  mechanics  of  the  contractor  who  furnishes  the  architec- 
tural ironwork  are  putting  up  the  stairways,  elevator  en- 
closure posts,  the  freight-elevator  jambs,  saddles,  etc.,  and 
cast-iron  mullions  in  courts. 

The  plumber  is  netting  his  roughing  for  the  wash-basins 
and  toilet-rooms. 

The  marble-contractor  is  setting  the  marble  wainscoting 
in  halls  and  toilet-rooms. 

The  steam-contractor  has  his  up-and-down  pipes  in 
place. 

The  electrician  has  tubes  laid  throughout  the  building, 
but  no  wires  drawn. 

The  carpenter  has  his  plaster  grounds  for  the  baseboard 
and  chair-rail  in  place,  and  then  the  plasterer,  with  his  mortar 
and  trowels,  takes  possession  and  covers  all  this  work  with 
a  white  covering.  The  latter  usually  takes  but  a  short  time 
to  go  through  the  building,  but  he  is  almost  the  last  con- 
tractor to  leave  the  building,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  al- 
ways a  great  amount  of  patching  to  be  done,  and  work  has 
to  be  changed  here  and  there:  some  of  the  other  contractors 
did  not  keep  ahead  of  the  plasterers  or  the  mechanics  did  a 
little  more  racking  to  the  partitions  than  they  should  have 
clone. 

\\  hen  any  one  floor  is  finished  by  the  plasterers  the  car- 
penter begins  to  set  the  trim.  This  work  is  usually  all  pre- 
pared at  the  planing-mill,  with  one  coat  of  filler  and  white 
varnish,  and  sent  to  the  building  and  immediately  set  in 
place,  and  the  hardware  put  on  as  soon  as  consistent  with  the 
progress  of  the  work.  The  finished  flooring  is  set  at  the 
r-ame  time. 


FIG.  28. — FISIIEK   B 


Fir,.  29.  —  RKI.IANCK  lirn  DIM;,  CIIICACO,  ILL. 
i  I),  il.  BiiinlKim  >v  Co..  Art  huccts.i 


Fa;.  30.  —  RELIANCK   BCII.DIM;,  Completed  Steel  Frame. 


63 


64  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

The  painter  here  follows  up  the  carpenter,  the  require- 
ments of  his  specifications  being  that  he  shall  paint  all  wood 
and  iron  work  on  the  exterior  of  the  building,  window  trim 
and  sash,  all  galvanized  ironwork,  interior  ironwork  not 
electroplated,  interior  pine  woodwork;  and  all  hard  wood 
on  the  interior  varnished  in  three  or  four  coats,  and  the  last 
coat  rubbed  down  with  pumice-stone  and  crude  oil  to  a  dead 
finish. 

The  interior  partition  glass,  gas,  and  electric  fixtures, 
steam-radiators,  plumbing  fixtures,  and  elevator-cars  at  this 
time  are  all  being  finished,  the  building  cleaned  down  and 
made  ready  for  tenants. 

\Yhile  the  upper  floors  are  being  pushed  along  to  com- 
pletion, the  machinery  hall  in  basement  or  cellar  is  having 
its  heavy  machinery  for  supplying  steam  for  running  ele- 
vators and  heat  for  the  building. 

The  engines,  with  their  direct-connected  dynamos  which 
supply  light  and  power,  if  there  are  electric  elevators,  and 
the  switchboard,  with  its  endless  variety  of  wires  and  meters, 
are  all  being  put  in  place. 

Fire-pumps,  with  stand-pipes  and  hose  rack  and  nozzles, 
are  placed  on  each  floor,  and  in  addition  to  all  the  above  the 
building  is  equipped  with  telephone  and  telegraph  wires,  so 
that  at  a  box  in  the  cellar  any  system  can  be  attached  to 
these  wires  without  stringing  any  additional  wire  at  any 
future  time,  the  offices  all  having  the  wire  supplied  from 
these  cables,  which  extend  through  the  building. 

The  speed  with  which  such  buildings  are  finished  de- 
pends upon  system.  Every  set  of  mechanics  with  their 
material  must  start  in  at  the  proper  time,  and,  in  addition  to 
the  day-work,  it  very  frequently  happens  that  a  night  gang 
of  men  will  be  required. 

The  <jreat  secret  of  the  success  attained  in  this  work  is 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  63 

constant,  unremitting'  push  in  all  departments.  There  is  no 
reason  why  any  department  should  wait  for  any  other;  the 
architect,  builder,  superintendent  of  building  and  all  sub- 
contractors work  hand  in  hand  to  accomplish  the  same  re- 
sult, that  is,  "  a  large  building  constructed  in  less  time  than 
any  of  its  predecessors." 


66  THE  PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


CHAPTER  II. 
FLOOR-PLANNING. 

A  SUCCESSFULLY  and  well  planned  building  should  con- 
stitute, firstly,  well-lighted  rooms;  secondly,  a  maximum 
of  rentable  space;  thirdly,  good  elevator  service  and  toilet 
arrangements. 

For  its  proper  working  it  should  contain  all  the  latest 
devices  in  heating,  plumbing,  and  lighting,  requiring  a  vast 
mechanical  plant  of  boilers,  steam-engines,  and  electric-light 
apparatus. 

WELL-LIGHTED  ROOMS. — The  position  of  the  plot  upon 
which  the  building  is  to  be  erected  will  practically  determine 
whether  the  principal  offices  will  be  lighted  from  the  north, 
south,  east,  or  west.  Some  contend  that  the  north  light  is 
the  best,  while  others  prefer  that  each  office  should  have  the 
sunshine  during  a  part  of  the  day.  Nevertheless  it  is  neces- 
sary that  all  the  outer  offices  should  open  to  the  air  with 
ample  window  surfaces,  and  the  inner  offices,  those  which 
face  large  open  courts,  should  be  provided  with  extra- 
large  window  openings. 

In  some  of  our  large  buildings  built  upon  narrow  streets 
the  inner  offices  are  sometimes  more  desirable  than  those  on 
the  street  fronts,  as  the  large  courts  extending  to  the  bottom 
aflord  good  ventilation,  and  those  courts  which  face  north 
and  south,  or  nearly  so.  seem  to  be  better  adapted  to  giving 
the  greatest  amount  of  light. 

A  MAXIMUM  RENTABLE  SPACE. — This  is  also  governed, 
in  a  great  measure,  by  the  sixe.  extent,  and  shape  of  the  plot. 


7//<7//   OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


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817  |  §  MB 


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814 

U'3""12V*  2  r!6'3"«12'l" 


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803  804  .(OS 

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FIG.  31. — SCHII.I.ER   TiiK.vrr.E   HL'.LDING,    TYPICAL  FLOOR   PLAN. 


68  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

There  must  be  on  each  floor  elevators,  stairway,  halls,  toilets, 
vent  and  pipe  shafts,  each  requiring  an  amount  of  space  con- 
sistent with  the  height  of  the  building  and  the  number  ot 
offices  on  each  floor.  The  main  portion  of  the  building 
should  have  the  halls  wider  than  those  in  the  wings,  espe- 
cially in  front  of  the  elevators.  The  wings,  if  any,  should 
have  the  halls  narrower,  say  4  feet  for  rooms  12  to  15  feet 
in  depth.  In  front  of  the  elevators  6  to  8  feet  seem  prac- 
ticable. The  stairs,  which  are  seldom  used,  are  generally 
made  from  3  feet  to  3  feet  6  inches  in  width,  and  placed  back 
of  the  elevators  in  some  remote  part  of  the  building. 

The  writer's  experience  has  been  that  those  offices  rang- 
ing from  $200  to  $450  per  annum,  iox  12  feet  to  15x20 
feet,  are  more  easily  rented  by  the  masses  than  larger  ones. 
The  price  per  square  foot  is  governed,  of  course,  by  the  lo- 
cality. 

For  a  better  comprehension  of  the  above  we  refer  at 
once  to  a  number  of  existing  buildings. 

SCHILLER  THEATRE  OFFICE-FLOOR  PLAN. — The  Schiller 
Theatre  in  Chicago  is  a  building  90  feet  wide  and  seventeen 
stones  high  (see  plan.  Fig.  31).  The  depth  of  the  lot  is  180 
feet.  The  theatre  is  on  the  first  floor  at  the  back,  the  front 
of  the  building  and  all  the  upper  part  over  the  theatre  being 
given  up  to  offices. 

The  site  being  a  long  rectangle,  the  building  was  made 
narrower  above  the  theatre,  and  the  large  open  courts  are  the 
result. 

At  the  ninth  floor  (see  plan.  Fig.  32)  the  front  is  discon- 
tinued on  each  side  to  permit  free  access  of  light  to  the  side 
courts  within,  the  main  portion  being  continued  to  the 
seventeenth  floor.  The  inner  offices  are  as  a  unit  about 
12  y  \()  feet. 

The  long  and  rear  corridors  are  6  feet  wide,  the  front  cor- 


HIGH  OFF1CE-B  U1LD1NGS. 


69 


FIG.    32.— SCIIII.I.KR    THKATUE   Hrn.nixi;.      Xinth-tloor  and  above  Plan. 
lAdlcr  i  Sul'.iv.ir.  Artliitccts.  > 


7O  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

ridor  7  feet  6  inches  wide,  and  that  in  front  or  between  ele- 
vators 8  feet.  The  long  courts  are  18  feet  wide  by  105  feet 
long. 

AMERICAN  TRACT  SOCIETY  BUILDING  FLOOR-PLAN.— 
One  of  the  mocst  successful  high  buildings  in  Xew  York  for 
renting  is  the  American  Tract  Society's,  shown  in  plan,  Fig. 


;ASSAU  STREET 


FK;.   33.— AMERICAN    TRACT   SOCIKTV    HriLniNG.      Typical   Floor-plan. 
(K.  H.  Robertson.  Architect.) 

33.  There  are  twenty  floors  above  the  first,  which  are  divided 
into  thirty-six  offices  on  each  floor,  ranging  from  <)  feet  wide 
by  i  i  feet  6  inches  long  to  9  feet  wide  by  17  feet  long. 

There  are  two  open  courts  extending  nearly  north  and 
south,  the  middle  or  larger  court  being  16  feet  wide  by  60 
feet  long  and  the  smaller  court  /  feet  wide  by  60  feet  long. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  71 

Every  office,  toilet-room,  and  elevator-well  has  outside  light, 
the  elevators  (five  in  number),  toilet-rooms,  and  vent-shafts 
being  placed  in  the  least  desirable  part.  The  wing  between 
the  courts  and  that  adjoining  the  elevator  could  be  made 
into  large  offices  if  so  desired  by  tenants  requiring  such  an 
arrangement. 

The  corridors  are  5  feet  wide  and  the  circular  space  in 
front  of  elevators  to  stairs  1 1  feet  wide. 

This  arrangement  of  plan  and  courts  is  the  only  practical 
solution  of  the  plot,  unless  the  courts  are  extended  east  and 
west  instead  of  north  and  south.  The  windows  on  the  street 
fronts  are  not  less  than  5  feet  in  width,  and  those  offices  in 
courts  have  practically  all  windows,  the  larger  pier.;  being 
necessary  on  account  of  the  columns  which  support  the  su- 
perstructure. 

NATIONAL  BANK  OF  COMMERCE  BUILDING  FLOOR-PLAN. 
—By  comparing  this  plan  (Fig.  34)  with  the  one  mentioned 
above  we  have  a  similar  treatment  of  the  plot.  \Yhile  the 
Tract  Society  Building  stands  upon  the  southeast  corner  of 
Nassau  Street,  this  one  is  upon  the  northeast  corner  of  the 
same  street. 

The  large  court  is  made  24  feet  wide  by  48  feet  long. 
The  Clearing-house  on  the  west  side  fortunately  being  a  low 
and  permanent  building,  another  court  was  dispensed  with. 
In  addition  to  the  offices  shown  upon  this  plan  the  larger 
offices  could  be  again  divided  into  reasonably  smaller 
ones. 

This  building  contains  one  more  elevator  than  the  Tract 
Society  Building  and  is  three  stories  less  in  height,  being  but 
nineteen  stories. 

ST.  PAUL  BUILDING. — In  the  typical  floor-plan  (Fig.  35) 
we  have  a  twenty-six-story  building,  in  which  the  plot  is  of 
such  a  shape  that  the  office  unit  is  considerably  larger  than 


72  7 'HE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

the  two  just  described.     The  smaller  offices  are  10  feet  wide 
by  20  feet  long;  those  facing  the  elevator  are  25  feet  long. 

There  are  six  fast-running  elevators,  only  two  of  which 
are  shown  on  this  plan  ;    two  rooms  take  the  place  of  the 


L/ I/      isb      \i/    d&    \| 

J\-^ 

r*.,*£ 

1  i 


NASSAU    STREET 

FIG.   34. — NATIONAL  HANK   OF  COMMERCE   HUILDING. 

other  four  on  the  upper  stories,  with  three  windows  opening 
into  the  large  court. 

The  offices  are  well  lighted;  in  fact,  the  window  takes  up 
almost  the  entire  width  of  each  room. 

Hie  stairway  is  placed  at  the  extreme  end  and  in  the 
least  desirable  portion  of  the  building. 

COMMERCIAL  CABLK    BUILDING  TYPICAL   FLOOR-PLAN. 

—The  Commercial  Cable  Building,  situated  at  \TOS.  20  and 

22  Broad  Street  and  Nos.  18  and  20  New  Street,  immediately 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


73 


Fie.   35. — ST.   PATI.   Hni.nt.NG,    NEW   YORK. 
(,Geo.  B.  Post,  Arcliitect.) 


74  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

adjoining  the  Stock  Exchange,  lias  for  its  tenants  mostly 
brokers.  The  typical  floors  are  so  arranged  as  to  accommo- 
date very  small,  medium,  and  large  sized  offices,  the  small 
offices  being  but  9  feet  3  inches  wide  by  16  feet  6  inches  long, 
and  others  15x16  feet.  There  being  but  seventeen  offices  on 
each  floor  and  two  courts  on  each  side,  with  the  two  street 
fronts,  outside  light  is  admitted  to  every  room.  (See  Fig  36.) 

The  building  is  equipped  with  six  electric  elevators  of 
the  screw  type,  which  will  be  fully  explained  under  "  Ele- 
vators/' 

GOOD  ELEVATOR  SERVICE  AND  TOILET  ARRANGEMENTS. 
—It  will  be  particularly  noticed  by  any  one  examining  these 
different  floor-plans  that  the  elevators  are  all  grouped  to- 
gether, and,  further,  that  in  the  majority  of  cases  they  are 
equidistant  from  the  extreme  offices.  If  this  is  not  so  ar- 
ranged, it  will  be  found  that  the  street  entrance  governs,  in 
a  great  measure,  their  exact  location. 

The  success  of  most  of  the  high  buildings  is  involved  in 
the  elevator  service  with  which  they  are  supplied.  As  the 
height  of  the  building  and  the  tenancy  increase  the  demands 
of  carriage  become  urgent  to  a  great  degree.  They  must 
be  capable  of  the  utmost  certainty  and  regularity. 

The  different  systems,  viz.,  hydraulic,  steam,  and  electric, 
each  have  their  advocates,  and  it  is  not  in  the  scope  of  this 
work  to  make  any  comparison  as  to  their  merits;  but  we 
have  to  prepare  the  plans  for  each  in  allowing  sufficient  space 
for  their  cages  and  guide-work.  The  hydraulic  will  require. 
if  it  has  vertical  cylinders,  a  space  back  of  cages  or  in  a  sepa- 
rate shaft  about  4  feet  square  for  each  cylinder.  If  electricity 
is  used,  this  need  not  be  provided. 

The  cages  should  be  at  least  6  feet  wide  by  5  feet  in  depth, 
and  the  ropes  capable  of  lifting  about  2500  pounds,  running 
at  a  speed  of  350  to  450  feet  per  minute. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


75 


NEW   STREET 


BROAD    STREET 


Fir,.   36. — COMMERCIAL  CAULK   BUILDING. 

(.Harding- &  Gooch,  Architects.) 


76  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSl^RUCTION   OF 

It  is  not  altogether  necessary  that  every  elevator-builder 
must  have  special  and  individual  conditions  to  place  his  ma- 
chinery. "While  it  is  possible,  if  you  hold  a  car  long  enough 
at  the  lower  landing,  to  pack  in  fifteen  or  twenty  people,  and 
must  necessarily  have  floor-space  to  accommodate  this  num- 
ber, it  is  not  generally  wise  to  so  plan  the  elevators.  More 
can  be  accomplished  with  two  small  rapid-running  cars  than 
a  large  one  making  fewer  trips.  It  has  been  found  in  modern 
service,  from  actual  count,  that  the  average  number  of  pas- 
sengers carried  will  not  exceed  six  people  or  even  five,  and 
in  many  cases  falls  below  this  ;  therefore,  if  we  plan  for 
actual  Moor-space,  to  have,  as  mentioned  above,  25  to  30 
square  feet,  we  are  giving  ample  room  for  ten  to  twelve 
people;  in  other  words,  multiply  the  number  of  elevators  to 
take  care  of  the  patrons  of  the  building  rather  than  decrease 
in  number  and  increase  in  floor-space  of  cars. 

For  side-post  construction  allow  5  inches  on  each  side  of 
the  car;  if  cars  are  grooved  on  the  sides,  with  a  pilaster  in- 
side, this  distance  can  be  reduced  to  3  inches.  (The  thick- 
ness of  car  being  2  inches,  this  makes  5  inches  from  inside  to 
cross-beams;  this  is.  of  course,  providing  the  shaft  is  per- 
fectly plumb,  which  it  seldom  is.) 

The  counterweight  will  occupy  a  space  of  3  to  4  inches 
by  2  to  3  feet  in  width,  as  circumstances  require:  usually  the 
counterweight  can  be  placed  to  one  side  of  the  guide-posts, 
requiring  no  more  room  _than  indicated  for  side-posts.  If 
corner  guideways  are  used,  very  little,  if  any.  room  is  gained; 
but  the  writer  prefers  the  side-guides. 

From  the  under  side  of  overhead  sheave-beams  at  least 
12  feet  should  be  provided  from  the  upper  floor  of  shaft,  or 
16  feet  in  all.  and  a  pit  of  2  feet  to  2  feet  6  inches  in  depth 
should  be  provided  below  the  level  of  the  lower  landing. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILD  INGS.  77 

For  a  model  hydraulic  plant  the  reader  is  referred  to  the 
Central  Bank  Building  in  another  chapter. 

Up  to  a  comparatively  recent  date  250  feet  per  minute 
was  regarded  as  a  high  speed  for  an  elevator,  and  no  diffi- 
culty was  experienced  in  controlling  by  the  old  system  of  the 
hand  cord  or  rod  passing  through  the  car;  the  elevator  of  to- 
day, however,  demands  a  much  higher  speed.  At  such  high 
speeds  it  is  impossible  to  control  by  the  old  methods;  there- 
fore, it  becomes  necessary  to  use  other  devices,  such  as  the 
lever  and  hand-wheel.  The  lever  device,  when  properly  ad- 
justed, handles  the  car  with  a  nicety,  the  lever  operating  a 
pilot-valve,  which  in  turn  operates  the  main  valve  to  the  cyl- 
inder. This  has,  it  is  claimed,  some  very  serious  objections, 
in  that  there  is  sometimes  an  uncertain  stopping  and  starting 
often  felt  in  cars  so  fitted. 

There  are  other  devices  which  have  direct  connection 
with  and  control  of  the  main  valve  without  the  use  of  an  in- 
termediate or  pilot-valve. 

If  in  the  nature  of  the  plan  it  is  not  passible  to  place  a 
freight  elevator  for  lifting  safes,  furniture,  etc..  in  a  separate 
shaft  at  another  point  in  the  building,  one  of  the  passenger 
elevators  should  be  provided  to  carry  at  least  6000  pounds 
at  a  slower  speed  and  to  have  the  entire  front  of  the  enclos- 
ure open. 

The  toilets  of  the  high  buildings  require  careful  consid- 
eration; they  should  be  placed  in  a  light-well,  the  outside 
being  more  valuable  for  office-room.  For  the  number  of 
closets  to  the  floor  there  seems  to  be  a  great  difference  of 
opinion.  In  the  Tract  Society  Building  there  are  nine 
offices  to  each  closet;  in  the  Bank  of  Commerce  Building 
and  Commercial  Cable  Building  six  to  each  closet. 

Very  many  buildings  are  arranged  without  closets  on 
each  floor,  but  they  are  all  placed  on  one  story.  This  is  no 


78  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

doubt  simpler  and  cheaper,  but  it  is  often  forgotten  that  the 
additional  elevator  service  for  this  travel  causes  an  increased 
running  expense. 

In  the  St.  Paul  Building  the  toilets  are  so  arranged. 
There  is  a  ladies'  toilet  on  each  floor  and  a  men's  toilet  con- 
taining urinals  and  slop-sink,  while  the  men's  toilet-room 
with  closets  is  situated  upon  the  ninth  story. 

In  all  those  plans  which  have  the  men's  toilet  on  each 
floor  it  is  customary  to  have  the  ladies'  upon  the  fifth  and 
tenth  if  the  building  is  fifteen  stories,  and  upon  the  seventh 
and  fifteenth  if  the  building  is  twenty  stories,  in  height. 

The  writer  is  of  the  opinion  that  it  is  better  to  place  the 
men's  toilet  on  each  floor.  This  is  his  practice,  and  he  has 
found  it  desired  by  the  majority  of  tenants.  ]f  the  toilets 
should  be  arranged  upon  a  separate  floor,  the  number  of 
closets,  etc.,  may  be  considerably  less  than  the  whole  number 
on  all  floors. 

The  closets  require  for  each  a  space  2  feet  9  inches  wide, 
centre  to  centre  of  marble  partition,  by  4  feet  6  inches  deep; 
for  each  urinal  2  feet  wide;  for  each  wash-basin  2^ feet  6 
inches  wide. 

If  the  toilet-room  has  six  closets,  or  one  for  every  six 
offices,  there  should  be  two  urinals,  two  wash-basins,  and  a 
slop-sink.  Hach  office  or  suite  of  offices  should  be  supplied 
with  one  basin.  For  convenience  of  arrangement,  etc.,  con- 
sult the  article  on  "  Plumbing.'' 

In  examining  very  many  plans  of  Chicago  office-build- 
ings the  writer  finds  that  the  majority  of  offices  are  provided 
with  vaults  built  of  fire-proof  materials.  \Yliile  these  may 
be  desirable  to  tenants,  they  are  very  seldom,  if  ever,  fur- 
nished in  the  New  York  offices. 

Electricity  furnishes  all  these  modern  buildings  with 
light,  either  from  the  street  main  or  by  special  plants  pro- 


II  1C,  If   OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


79 


vided  in  the  basement;  but  it  is  quite  necessary  to  provide 
one  or  t\va  lines  of  gas-piping  arranged  in  combination 
fixtures  at  or  near  the  stairway  and  in  the  toilet-rooms. 
Then,  again,  there  has  been  placed  in  several  of  our  high 
buildings  a  refrigerating  plant  to  provide  ice-water  to  a 
fountain  placed  in  the  corridor  of  each  floor.  This  adds  but 


EXCHANGE     PLACE 

FK;.    37.  —  LORD'S   COTRT   Hrn.nixo. 

(John  T.  Williams,  Archittx't., 

a  small  amount  to  the  cost  of  the  plant  in  the  beginning,  and 
is  an  attraction  to  the  tenants. 

LORD'S  COURT  BUILDING  TYPICAL  FLOOR-PLAN. — The 
plan  Fig.  37  is  Ford's  Court  Building,  situated  at  the  south- 
west corner  of  \Yilliam  Street  and  Fxchange  Place,  on  a 
peculiar-shaped  plot  of  ground  containing  about  12.000 
square  feet.  The  building  is  214  feet  high  from  the  sidewalk. 
and  contains  fifteen  stories. 


8O  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

The  constructive  metal-work  is  of  wrought  steel  through- 
out, the  connections  being  designed  with  particular  reference 
to  the  lateral  stresses  incidental  to  such  tall  structures,  es- 
pecially in  the  long  wing,  where  heavy  beams  and  knee- 
braces  are  used. 

The  offices  are  well  planned  as  to  light;  all  easy  of  access 
to  elevators  and  toilets.  The  corridors  and  toilet-rooms 
throughout  are  finished  with  white  Italian  marble  wainscot- 
ing and  the  floors  of  marble  mosaic.  The  main  entrance- 
hall  and  stairways  throughout  are  finished  in  fine  marbles. 

This  building  is  equipped  with  an  independent  plant, 
which  supplies  from  its  three  high-pressure  boilers  in  the 
basement  all  the  power  for  the  five  electric  elevators  and 
lighting.  There  are  seventeen  lines  of  vertical  riser-pipes 
and  returns  which  supply  steam  to  519  radiators. 

The  building  is  as  complete  as  modern  improvements  can 
make  it,  being  supplied,  in  addition  to  the  above,  with  fire- 
lines  in  hall  with  hose  attachments,  mail-chutes,  and  a  sys- 
tem of  iron  tubes,  vertically  and  horizontally  carried 
throughout  to  all  the  offices,  for  the  insertion  of  telephone 
and  district-messenger  service. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  8 1 


CHAPTER   III. 
THE  CENTRAL  BANK  BUILDING. 

As  there  is  no  better  way  of  treating  our  subject  than  by 

describing  excellent  examples,  the  writer  presents  at  once  a 

modern  skeleton  structure,  the  Central  Bank  Building  (Fig. 

38),  situated  at  the  northeast  corner  of  Broadway  and  Pearl 

Street,  New  York;  John  T.  \Yilliams,  architect  and  builder. 

It  is  built  upon  a  plot  of  ground  75  feet  on  Broadway  by 

150  feet  on  Pearl  Street,  containing  11,270  square  feet,  and 

is  215  feet  from  curb  to  top  of  roof-beams,  containing  fifteen 

stories  above  and  two  below  the  sidewalk. 

The  work  was  executed  as  follows  : 

Foundation  begun  July  10,  1896. 

First  granite  base  set  July  31,  1896. 

Iron  men  began  work  August  7,  1896. 

First  column  set  August  10,  1896. 

Roof-columns  set  October  23,  1896. 

Roof  enclosed  October  30,  1896. 

The  plate  (Fig.  39)  shows  the  condition  of  the  building 
October  24,  1896.  The  view  (Fig.  40)  was  photographed 
November  14,  1896.  The  fronts  were  completed  December 
9,  1896.  At  the  same  time  the  plastering,  steam-piping, 
plumbing,  etc..  were  considerably  advanced,  and  the  build- 
ing was  ready  for  occupancy  the  latter  part  of  this  month, 
the  entire  work  being  wholly  completed  in  the  short  period 
of  seven  months. 

Tin-:  ARCHITECTURAL  STYLE  of  the  building  is  that  of  the 
Grecian  Doric,  the  oldest  type  of  the  classic  group,  from 


82  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

which  many  of  our  recent  and  most  successful  buildings  can 
trace  descent. 

The  conditions  and  spirit  of  modernity  must  necessarily 
be  recognized  in  the  application  of  a  style  of  such  antiquity, 
which,  while  reflecting  the  highest  culture  and  genius  of  a 
period  of  architectural  excellence,  was  untrammelled  by 
commercial  restrictions  and  nineteenth-century  influences. 
The  architectural  designer  of  to-day  is  confronted  with  a 
difficult  problem,  more  serious  than  his  predecessors  were 
ever  called  upon  to  solve,  and  in  this  country  we  have  cer- 
tainly added  to  his  task  by  prescribing  at  times  altitudes 
hitherto  unknown  in  architectural  practice. 

Jn  the  Central  Bank  Building  a  reasonable  limit  to  ver- 
tical dimension  has  been  fortunately  recognized,  and  by  a 
studied  relation  of  the  three  emphasized  horizontal  divisions 
to  the  height  a  highly  creditable  composition  has  been  added 
to  the  commercial  structures  on  Broadway. 

The  Doric  order  through  its  lintilar  style  offers  an  im- 
portant r.rgument  in  favor  of  its  adoption  in  commercial 
buildings;  and,  again,  from  its  character  of  solidity  and  re- 
pose, its  appropriateness  to  heavy  structures  is  unquestioned. 
In  this  particular  building  its  selection  undoubtedly  suggests 
the  purpose  or  "  estimation  "  of  the  structure,  the  home  of  a 
metropolitan  national  bank.  To  emphasize  this  idea,  the 
two-story  columnar  order  occurring  in  the  basement  treat- 
ment is  elevated  on  a  bold  rusticated  subbase  the  height  of 
the  main  story.  This  wall  is  frankly  pierced  for  windows, 
the  sharp  arrises  and  dee])  jambs  rather  tending  to  accentu- 
ate the  quality  of  a  suborder.  This  arrangement  relieves 
the  base-line  of  serious  irregularity  and  permits  unobstructed 
passage  along  the  sidewalk  and-  about  the  entrance  to  the 
building. 

T-he  three  stories  just  referred  to,  together  with  an  attic, 


Fu;.    38. — CKNTKAL   HANK    Bi  ILDINC,   XK\V   YORK. 

(Julin  T.  Williams,  Architect.' 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  8$ 

are  constructed  of  granite  and  complete  the  basement  of  the 
structure.  The  metope  of  the  entablature  over  the  col- 
umnar order  is  filled  with  carving  emblematic  of  American 
Commerce,  Peace,  Progress,  and  Prosperity. 

The  superstructure  consists  of  a  rusticated  shaft  includ- 
ing eight  stories  and  what  may  be  termed  a  neck-band  of 
two  additional  stories;  above  this  is  an  entablature  (propor- 
tioned to  the  entire  structure  as  an  order)  absorbing  the  in- 
terval from  the  fourteenth-story  lintels  to  the  highest  mem- 
ber of  the  main  cornice  over  the  fifteenth  story.  All  this 
work  has  been  carried  out  in  brick  and  terra-cotta. 

Of  the  shaft  proper  the  fenestration  has  been  kept  ex- 
ceedingly simple,  a  decorative  motif  being  secured  by  fram- 
ing groups  of  four  windows  in  consecutive  double  stories, 
but  preserving  a  marginal  sequence  of  single  openings 
around  the  collective  group.  All  openings  show  empha- 
sized lintels  which  are  introduced  between  the  recessed 
courses  of  brick  forming  the  lines  of  rustication. 

A  table  moulding  serves  as  the  line  of  demarcation  be- 
tween this  shaft  and  the  superimposed  stories,  and  leads  to 
the  change  in  member  of  the  order.  The  thirteenth  and 
fourteenth  stories  are  treated  together,  and  to  more  clearly 
define  the  neck-band  the  rustications  are  omitted.  The 
flank  windows  are  framed  in  an  archivolt  and  crowned  with 
a  pediment.  This  pediment  and  the  intermediate  panel  be- 
tween the  two  orders  of  stories  are  enriched  with  a  modelled 
ornament.  On  the  Broadway  facade  the  interval  between 
the  flank  windows  is  treated  in  the  style  of  the  columnar 
order  in  the  basement  group,  but  of  course  in  terra-cotta. 
These  Doric  columns  are  believed  to  be  the  first  of  the  ( ire- 
cian  order  ever  made  of  this  material,  at  least  it  is  so  stated  in 
a  recent  issue  of  a  well-known  architectural  journal. 

On  the  Pearl  Street  front  the  intermediate  windows  be- 


86  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

tween  flanks  are  treated  as  wall-perforations,  the  floor-screen 
being  panelled  to  preserve  the  continuity  of  the  vertical 
jamb-lines  and  so  further  the  general  union  of  the  two 
stories. 

The  entablature  over  this  order  is  kept  subordinate,  evi- 
dently with  the  object  of  making  it  appear  as  an  architrave 
to  the  main  entablature  of  the  structure.  This  has  been 
successfully  done,  and  the  strong  accentuation  of  the  orna- 
mented panels  on  the  face  of  the  fifteenth-story  piers  sug- 
gests a  vigorous  triglyph  motif,  free  from  the  abnormal  effect 
that  a  conventional  treatment  would  have  caused.  The 
lintel  course  over  the  fifteenth  story  performs  the  other  func- 
tion of  the  astragal  members  over  the  triglyphs;  and  finally 
we  have  a  strong  and  bold  cornice  of  some  ()  feet  projection 
with  a  coffered  soffit,  providing  a  valuable  medium  for  the 
play  of  reflected  light.  The  flat  cymatium,  decorated  with 
well-defined  and  oft-recurring  lions'  heads,  lends  interest  to 
the  sky-line  and  suitably  completes  the  composition  in  a 
manner  both  rational  and  accordant  with  the  fitness  of 
tilings. 

OFFICF  A  KR. \xr.ian-:  XT. — There  are  over  three  hundred 
and  fifty  well-lighted  offices  (see  plan.  Fig.  41),  the  majority 
of  which  open  on  the  Broadway  and  Pearl  Street  sides,  and 
the  others  into  two  large  open  courts  facing  northward. 

There  are  live  large  elevators  conveniently  situated,  with 
a  large  elevator-hall  in  front,  into  which  the  corridor.  <S  feet 
in  width,  opens.  The  large  elevator  at  the  rear  is  for  freight 
and  connects  with  an  entrance  on  Pearl  Street. 

The  majority  of  the  rooms  are  15  x  20  feet  in  dimensions, 
thus  containing  300  square  feet. 

STKF.L  rsF.n  i\  TIIF  COXSTRTCTIOX. —  In  construction 
the  building  is  as  perfect  a  specimen  of  the  steel  skeleton  type 
as  anv  that  has  been  heretofore  erected.  There  are  no  self- 


Fir,.  39. — CENTRAL  HANK  Bt  ILIUM;.     Showing  Condition  October  24,  1890. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  89 

supporting  walls,  except  the  four  lower  stories  of  the  fronts, 
and  all  loads,  as  brick,  terra-cotta,  tile,  and  stone  in  walls  and 
floors,  are  carried  at  each  floor-level  by  the  steel  frame. 

The  entire  structure  is  built  upon  solid  beds  of  Portland- 
cement  concrete,  in  some  cases  5  feet  thick  and  bedded  30 
feet  below  the  sidewalk-level.  Upon  these  beds  of  concrete 
there  are  placed,  equally  distributed  throughout  the  bed, 
sixty-two  columns  resting  upon  granite  blocks  5  feet  by  5 
feet  by  18  inches  thick. 

A  special  feature  of  the  construction  pertains  to  the  can- 
tilever supports  of  the  party-walls,  the  loads  being  carried  to 
the  centre  of  the  foundation  instead  of  to  the  party-wall  line, 
thus  insuring  an  evenly  distributed  weight  over  the  entire 
foundation. 

The  entire  amount  of  steel  used  in  the  construction  is 
about  2500  tons,  and  the  following  specification  covers  in 
general  all  the  requirements  : 

"  All  the  various  members  of  the  wrought  constructional 
work  are  to  be  of  steel.  The  general  design  of  the  various 
parts  is  shown  by  the  scale  drawings  and  details,  and  the  con- 
struction is  to  include  all  angles,  splice-plates,  ties,  and  braces 
necessary  to  put  the  work  together  in  a  workmanlike  man- 
ner, as  may  be  hereafter  directed  and  designed. 

'  The  angles  and  plates  in  columns  and  girders  are  to  be 
whole  from  end  to  end  unless  otherwise  shown  or  allowed. 

'  The  rivets  for  columns  and  girders  to  be  £  inch  in  di- 
ameter unless  otherwise  indicated. 

'  The  connection  between  columns  and  floor-girders, 
and  between  wall-girders  and  columns,  is  shown  in  general 
on  the  sketch  sheet  accompanying  this  specification. 

'  The  connection  between  the  floor-beams  and  girders  is 
to  be  bv  standard  connection.  Each  tier  of  beams  is  to  be 


9O  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

tied  where  shown  by  plans  with  ^-inch  diameter  tie-rods  with 
heads  and  nuts  at  each  beam. 

"  The  cantilever  girders  of  the  first  tier,  upon  which  col- 
unis  rest,  are  to  have  countersunk  rivets  at  bearing-points 
and  with  separators  and  stiffeners,  all  as  per  detail  draw- 
ings. 

"  All  steel  used  is  to  be  Bessemer  or  open-hearth.  The 
tensile-strength  limit  of  elasticity  and  ductility  shall  be  de- 
termined from  a  standard  test-piece  cut  from  the  finished 
material.  Finished  bars  must  be  free  from  injurious  seams, 
flaws,  or  cracks,  and  shall  have  an  ultimate  strength  of  not 
less  than  58,000  or  Co,ooo  pounds  per  square  inch,  and  are  to 
bend  cold  180  degrees  to  a  diameter  equal  to  the  thickness 
of  the  pieces  tested  without  crack  or  flaw  on  the  outside  of 
the  bent  portion.  This  also  applies  to  the  rivet-steel. 

"  Inspection  of  the  work  shall  be  made  at  the  mill  by  the 
owner's  representative  if  deemed  necessary  as  the  work  pro- 
gresses, and  he  shall  have  the  right  to  condemn  the  whole 
or  any  part  of  the  work  if  in  his  opinion  it  is  not  up  to  the 
standard  required  by  the  drawings  and  these  specifications. 

"  All  workmanship  must  be  first-class,  and  all  abutting 
surfaces  of  compression-members  must  be  planed  or  turned 
to  an  even  bearing,  so  that  they  shall  be  in  perfect  contact 
throughout. 

"  All  wall-beam  girders  shall  have  cast-iron  separators 
placed  not  farther  apart  than  four  (4)  feet,  with  two  (2)  bolts 
to  each  separator. 

"  Some  of  these  wall-beam  girders  shall  also  have  a  short 
plate  and  wrought-iron  brackets  bolted  on  top  flange  and 
web  of  beams  for  supporting  the  larger  thickness  of  walls  at 
the  points  designated  on  plans. 

'  The  list  accompanying  this  specification  is  approximate 


II 


•UMmyn    "  '•••IP     || 

ii  If  SI  II  ii  ir  fur  ii 


Ku;.    40.— CENTRAL   HANK    Brn.niNr..      Showing    Progress   of  Work 
N'ovt-nihcr  14,   1890. 


HIGH  OFFICE- B  U1LD INGS. 


93 


94  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

only,  and  the  sizes  are  subject  to  change  when  full  details  are 
given. 

'  The  entire  work  is  to  be  painted  one  (i)  coat  of  best 
linseed-oil  and  red  lead  before  leaving  the  works,  and  one 
coat  when  erected." 

The  walls  of  the  Central  Bank  Building  are  built  of 
granite,  brick,  and  terra-cotta;  the  first  four  stories  being  of 
light  Hallowell  granite,  and  the  remaining  eleven  of  terra- 
cotta and  light  brick  surmounted  by  a  heavy  terra-cotta 
cornice. 

The  Moor-beams  of  the  building  are  encased  in  hollow 
fire-proof  blocks  covered  with  ash  concrete,  in  which  the 
3  x  4-inch  sleepers  are  embedded  and  to  which  the  double 
thickness  of  Mooring  is  thoroughly  nailed  and  well  secured. 

The  partitions  throughout  are  built  of  3-  and  4-inch  hol- 
low terra-cotta  blocks,  and  the  outside  walls  are  backed  with 
the  same  material  to  prevent  the  dampness  from  entering. 

The  finish  from  the  front  entrance-doors  on  Broadway 
to  the  elevators  and  throughout  the  banking-room,  toilets, 
and  halls  of  building  is  in  fine  marble. 

The  vestibule  and  hall  are  in  the  same  st\le  as  the  front 
of  the  building,  finished  with  light-veined  Muted  I'avana/zo 
marble  columns  in  one  piece,  with  dark  panels  formed  by 
borders  of  pink  Xumidian. 

The  banking-room  has  the  panel-work  and  friezes  in 
dark-veined  marble  enclosed  with  light  Italian  marble. 

The  corridors  in  the  upper  portion  of  the  building  are 
covered  on  the  side  walls  with  a  wainscoting  of  white  Italian 
marble,  and  in  all  the  toilet-rooms  the  same  marble  is  freelv 
used.  The  Moors  of  halls  and  corridors  arc  likewise  laid  in 
marble.  Where  marble  has  not  been  applied  the  walls  in 
every  part  of  the  building  are  finished  in  what  is  called 
"  Kind's  \Yindsor  drv  mortar  cement." 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  95 

Heavy  moulded  cornices  of  the  same  material  extend 
throughout  the  corridors,  and  are  especially  pronounced  in 
the  vestibule,  main  hall,  and  banking-room,  where  elaborate 
panel-work  sets  off  the  highly  finished  marbles. 

While  this  building  is  not  one  of  the  tallest  in  the  city,  it 
is  as  high  as  the  writer  recommends,  and  from  a  mechanical 
standpoint  the  building  possesses  great  interest.  It  is  fitted 
with  the  improved  sanitary,  hydraulic,  electric,  steam,  and 
dynamo  equipments,  which  have  developed  into  a  standard 
plan  for  the  complete  necessities  and  conveniences  of  mod- 
ern city  buildings. 

The  plumbing  being  of  the  greatest  importance,  the  en- 
tire system  is  of  wrought  galvanized-iron  pipe  for  main  lines 
of  drain,  soil,  waste,  leader,  and  vent  pipes,  of  uniform  thick- 
ness, and  provided  with  galvanized  wrought-iron  flush  tit- 
tings. 

All  the  water  used  in  the  building,  except  for  the  boilers, 
is  ordinarily  first  pumped  up  to  the  roof  and  then  distributed 
by  separate  lines  of  pipe  to  all  fixtures.  The  same  principle 
of  distribution  is  adhered  to  in  supplying  hot  water  from  a 
pressure-tank  in  the  boiler-room. 

All  fixtures  to  closets,  wash-bowels,  etc.,  are  of  the  latest 
improved  pattern,  of  solid  brass,  nickelled;  the  water-close'.s 
are  porcelain,  of  the  siphon  type,  furnished  with  quartered- 
oak  seats  and  (laps.  The  wash-bowls  are  ivory-tinted 
earthenware.  In  addition  to  all  the  plumbing  there  is  a  line 
of  galvanized  pipe  2\  inches  in  diameter  extending  from  the 
street  to  the  roof,  and  connected  at  each  Boor-corridor  with 
a  brass  gate-valve  with  hose  and  rack,  to  be  tised  in  case  of 
tire. 

The  interior  ornamental  work  of  the  building,  viz.,  the 
main  stairs  and  the  live  passenger-elevator  fronts,  are  built 
of  heavy  cast-iron  electro-plated  fascias,  with  cast-iron 


96  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

strings,  railings,  and  newels  for  the  stairs  and  highly  deco- 
rated grilles  for  the  elevators. 

For  all  light  ironwork,  such  as  roof-enclosure,  bulkheads, 
steel  channels,  lintels,  brackets,  and  anchors,  all  heavy  sec- 
tions of  angles,  tees,  and  straps  were  freely  used. 

The  wooden  trim  throughout  the  building  above  the 
banking-room  floor  is  of  the  best  quality  quartered  oak, 
thoroughly  seasoned  and  of  selected  grain  and  well  smoothed. 

All  windows  and  doors  have  moulded  architraves,  and 
all  communicating  doors  between  offices  have  wooden  cor- 
nices with  moulded  caps.  The  base-mouldings  are  14  inches 
high,  the  chair-rail  is  5^  inches  wide,  and  the  picture-mould 
3 5  inches  wide.  All  communicating  door-saddles  are  of  oak 
6  inches  wide,  moulded.  All  corridor-doors  have  marble 
saddles. 

The  doors  and  sash  of  the  banking-room  are  of  ma- 
hogany. 

All  quartered  oak  is  filled,  stained,  and  given  one  coat  of 
white  shellac  before  delivery  at  building;  in  addition  three 
coats  of  varnish  are  applied,  and  it  is  then  rubbed  down  with 
pumice-stone  and  crude  oil  to  a  dead  finish. 

All  doors  have  mortise  locks  with  combination  escut- 
cheons; and  there  are  transom  lifts  and  pivots  to  all  tran- 
som lights.  Exterior  sash  have  flush  sash-lifts,  two  to  each 
lower  and  upper  sash,  and  two  push-pulls  on  the  outside. 

The  elevator  plant  consists  of  five  passenger  and  two 
freight  elevators  and  one  sidewalk  elevator,  all  supplied  with 
two  pumps,  storage-tanks,  and  surge-tanks.  All  the  pas- 
senger elevators  are  hydraulic,  and  the  freight  elevators  are 
operated  by  steam.  The  cages  are  5-}  x  5^  feet. 

The  maximum  lifting  speed  is  600  feet  per  minute  with 
a  load  of  1000  pounds;  down  speed  with  2000  pounds  is  450 
feet  per  minute. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  97 

» 

Steam  is  provided  at  a  pressure  of  110  pounds  per 
square  inch,  having  passed  through  a  separator  in  the  en- 
gine-room, and  the  water-pressure  is  140  pounds  per  square 
inch. 

The  motive  power  consists  of  two  large  compound 
pumps. 

The  electric-light  installation  consists  of  a  complete  con- 
duit and  wiring  system  to  1796  outlets  arranged  for  2031  in- 
candescent lamps  of  1 6  candle-power. 

The  conduits  are  iron-armored,  with  rubber  insulated  wire. 

The  system  employed  is  a  vertical  circuit  arrangement, 
3-wire  to  2-wire,  the  distribution-boxes  being  situated  in  the 
subbasement  and  junction-boxes  upon  the  seventh  floor. 

The  current  is  supplied  from  independent  dynamos  lo- 
cated in  the  machinery-hall. 

The  switchboard  is  made  of  white  Italian  marble,  5  feet 
high  by  7  feet  6  inches  long,  i|  inches  thick,  and  is  sup- 
plied with  all  the  latest  improved  voltmeters,  ammeters,  and 
switches. 

The  building  is  also  equipped  with  a  complete  electric 
telephone  and  telegraph  system.  There  are  fourteen  20- 
wire  cables  and  three  1 2-wire  cables  extending  to  the  various 
floors  from  a  box  in  the  machinery-hall,  arranged  in  such  a 
manner  that  at  any  time  in  the  future  any  office  in  the  build- 
ing may  be  provided  with  connection  for  telephone,  tele- 
graph, etc.,  in  a  neat,  economical,  and  convenient  manner, 
by  means  of  the  grooved  cornices  in  the  halls,  without  dis- 
turbing the  tenants. 

The  building  being  one  of  the  latest  type  of  the  skeleton 
construction  and  complete  in  all  its  details,  we  will  present 
those  details  in  their  regular  order,  as  is  usual  in  preparing 
such  work. 


98  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


CHAPTER   IV. 

EXTERIOR  WALLS. 

ONE  of  the  many  changes  which  have  taken  place  in  the 
methods  of  construction  adopted  at  the  present  time  for  high 
office-buildings  is  that  in  relation  to  the  facing  or  exterior 
walls  of  these  structures.  This  change  has  come,  no  doubt, 
as  a  result  of  the  employment  of  the  steel  skeleton-frame,  in 
which  the  loads  are  carried  directly  to  the  foundation  by 
the  vertical  columns,  and,  when  brought  to  its  fullest  de- 
velopment, masonry  walls  as  supports  absolutely  count  for 
nothing.  Such  being  the  case,  all  manner  of  walls  disap- 
pear, and  that  portion  built  between  the  columns  becomes 
simply  a  veneer — not  a  strengthening  member,  except  in 
rare  cases,  but  simply  to  protect  the  metal-work  against  the 
elements;  brick,  terra-cotta,  and  stone  being  used  for  both 
decorative  and  fireproonng  functions. 

The  revision  of  the  building  laws  of  our  cities  generally 
has  kept  pace  with  this  change  of  construction,  but  the  Xew 
York  law  is  still  behind  in  the  treatment  of  the  exterior  walls 
of  skeleton  structures.  If  we  glance  for  a  moment  at  the 
illustration  Fig.  42  (warehouse-wall  sections)  and  compare  it 
with  Fig.  43  (curtain-wall  section),  we  are  impressed  with 
the  fact  that  the  skeleton-frame  has  made  a  considerable  sav- 
ing in  the  quantity  of  the  masonry  used  and  the  enormous 
dead  loads  which  the  foundations  are  required  to  support. 
For  example  :  The  American  Surety  Ihiilding,  being  300 
feet  above  the  sidewalk,  the  walls  at  the  base,  from  the  old 
system,  would  require  to  be  7  feet  thick,  and  for  every  run- 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


99 


fling  foot  of  this  wall  there  would  be  exerted  upon  the  foun- 
dations 75  tons  of  dead  load,  not  taking  into  consideration 


Fir,.  42.— WAREHOUSE-WALLS,    NEW   YORK    Bni.mxr,    LAWS. 

the  weight  of  the  floors.  liy  the  use  of  the  skeleton-frame 
it  would  be  reduced  to  40  tons,  and  by  using  a  u-inch  and 
i6-inch  wall  could  be  further  reduced  to  2~  tons.  This  cal- 
culation is  taken  upon  the  fact  that  a  cubic  foot  of  brick 
Diasonr\  ^'dglts  dry  /_'("-  pounds,  as  actnall\'  icci^hcd  h\  the 


100 


THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


CURD 


FIG.  43. — CURTAIN-WALLS,  NEW  YORK  BUILDING  LAWS. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  IOI 

writer,  and  not  7/5  pounds  per  cubic  foot,  as  called  for  by  Sec- 
tion 483  of  the  New  York  law — a  change  bro ught  about, 
doubtless,  by  the  use  of  cement  mortar  in  place  of  lime. 

CURTAIN-WALLS.  NEW  YORK  BUILDING  LAW. — The 
ilustration  Fig.  43  shows  the  different  sections  as  required 
by  the  New  York  law  and  quoted  below  : 

"  Section  477.  Curtain-walls  of  brick  built  in  between 
iron  or  steel  columns, and  supported  wholly  or  in  part  an  iron 
or  steel  girders,  shall  not  be  less  than  12  inches  thick  for  50 
feet  of  the  uppermost  height  thereof,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of 
beams  to  that  measurement,  in  any  building  so  constructed, 
and  every  lower  section  of  50  feet,  or  to  the  nearest  tier  of 
beams  to  such  vertical  measurement  or  part  thereof,  shall 
have  a  thickness  of  4  inches  more  than  is  required  for  the 
next  section  above  it.  down  to  the  tier  of  beams  nearest  to 
the  curb-line;  and  thence  "downwardly  the  thickness  of  walls 
shall  increase  in  the  ratio  prescribed  in  Section  474  of  this 
title  for  the  thickness  of  foundation-walls." 

The  above  is  a  decided  improvement  on  warehouse 
sections,  excellent  as  the  law  is.  but  still  not  what  it  should  be 
where  strictly  skeleton-walls  are  concerned. 

\Ye  recommend  a  still  greater  reduction  in  these  exterior 
coverings  in  that  shown  by  the  illustration  Fig.  44.  If  there 
is  no  practical  objection  (and  there  seems  none)  to  a  1 2-inch 
covering  for  the  four  upper  stories  when  every  member  of 
the  construction  is  lined  with  a  fireproofing  substance  on  all 
exposed  surfaces  and  made  damp-proof,  why  should  there 
be  any  objection  to  using  1 2-inch  walls  for  twelve  stories 
and  enclosing  the  lower  stories  with  16-  or  2O-inch  walls,  pro- 
tecting any  extreme  exposure  by  fire  from  adjoining  lower, 
non-fireproof  buildings  ?  By  the  latter  more  floor-space  is 
gained,  there  is  less  weight  on  the  foundation,  and  conse- 
quently less  cost  is  incurred. 


IO2 


THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


FIG.  44. — NEW   CURTAIN-WALLS  SECTION   RECOMMENDED  BY  THE  WRITER. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS  103 

It  is,  of  course,  understood  in  recommending  this  saving 
that  the  skeleton-frame  is  rigidly  built,  and  sufficiently 
strong  to  support  all  loads  and  sustain,  without  any  possi- 
bility of  derangement  of  its  parts,  all  manner  of  strains  to 
which  it  may  be  subjected. 

To  the  general  public  and  uninitiated  the  effect  of  seeing 
a  building  enclosed  from  the  fourth  and  fifth  stories  up- 
ward while  the  lower  stories  are  still  left  open  is  somewhat 
surprising.  This  is  not  a  difficult  problem  to  solve,  and  to 
add  to  the  weight  by  increased  wall  thicknesses,  instead  of 
decreasing  the  same,  is  far  from  being  economical. 

CL'RTAIN-WALLS — CHICAGO  LAW. — The  building  laws  of 
Chicago  are  more  liberal  than  the  Xew  York  building  laws  in 
their  treatment  of  these  walls.  (See  section  shown  by  the  il- 
lustration Fig.  45.) 

The  four  upper  stories  of  a  twelve-story  building  may  be 
12  inches,  the  next  six  lower  stories  16  inches,  then  one  story 
20  inches,  and  the  basement  24  inches. 

\Ye  very  often  see  fitting  examples  of  thin  walls  in  all  the 
large  courts  of  our  high  buildings,  although  the  Xew  York- 
law  does  not  make  any  special  provision  for  this.  By  appli- 
cation to  the  Hoard  of  Examiners  an  amendment  covering 
the  same  is  frequently  granted. 

The  Boston  building  law,  in  a  section  containing  a  few 
comprehensive  words,  settles  at  once  this  question. 

CTRTAIX-WALLS — BOSTON  LAW. — "  Section  40.  Ex- 
ternal walls  may  be  built  in  part  of  iron  or  steel,  and  when  so 
built  may  be  of  less  thickness  than  is  required  for  external 
walls,  providing  such  i\.}alls  meet  tJic  requirements  of  tins  act  as 
to  strciigfli.  and  providing  that  all  constructional  parts  are  <v//o//v 
protected  from  heat  b\  brick  or  terra-eotta,  or  b\  plastering  three 
quarters  of  an  inch  thick  TV////  iron  furring  and  -iciring." 

This  entire  question  of  exterior  walls  narrows  itself  down 


IO4 


THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


to  the  fact  that  a  satisfactory  covering  is  simply  needed  for 
the  great  steel  frame,  an  engineering  structure  which  is  more 


•-J- 

1 


FIG.  45.  —  CURTAIN-WALL  SECTION,   CHICAGO  BUILDING  LAW. 


than  ample  to  withstand  any  strain  to  which  i 
jected. 


it  may  be  sub- 


HIGH OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  105 

DANGERS  OF  SKY-SCRAPERS. — Time  and  again  we  are 
confronted  by  articles  in  the  press  such  as  "  Steel  Buildings 
in  Cyclones,"  referring  to  an  appalling  calamity  where  some 
ramshackle  structure  was  blown  down  by  a  cyclone.  Also 
this,  "  The  Dangers  of  Sky-scrapers,"  taken  from  a  Western 
paper: 

"  A  New  York  architect  has  written  an  instructive  paper 
in  which  the  modern  sky-scraper  is  severely  criticised,  and  his 
warning  that  we  are  running  up  our  office-buildings  to 
heights  that  are  ill-advised  in  many  ways  acquires  additional 
cogency  in  the  face  of  the  recent  disaster  in  St.  Louis. 

"  The  chief  arguments  advanced  in  favor  of  very  high 
buildings  in  large  cities  are:  First,  that  buildings  must  be 
made  high  in  order  to  accommodate  the  people;  second,  the 
upper  stories  of  such  buildings  are  more  pleasant  than  those 
nearer  the  ground;  third,  a  limitation  of  the  height  of  build- 
ings would  depreciate  the  value  of  the  property.  To  this  it 
is  replied  that  there  is  undoubtedly  a  reasonable  mean  for  the 
height  of  buildings,  at  which,  with  the  necessary  light  and 
air,  a  maximum  of  available  floor-space  may  be  secured. 

"  This  is  shown  in  Paris,  where  the  height  of  buildings  is 
restricted;  but,  nevertheless,  the  city  is  so  solidly  built  up  that 
it  will  accommodate  quite  as  many  people  as  could  be  pro- 
vided for  in  the  same  area  if  the  limitation  as  to  height  were 
removed. 

"  If  this  be  true,  it  would  seem  hard  to  find  a  satisfactory 
reason  why  American  cities  should  be  subjected  to  the  dis- 
figurcmcnt  and  the  dangers  arising  from  tlicsc  monstrosities. 

"  If  the  policy  of  building  such  structures  is  persisted  in. 
the  upper  floors  will  be  no  better  lighted  than  the  upper 
stories  of  ordinary  buildings  when  all  are  carried  to  the  same 
height,  and  when  this  result  is  reached  the  lower  stories  of 


IO6  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

such  buildings  will  be  unfit  to  live  in,  and  the  streets  will  be 
converted  into  dismal  ravines. 

"The  third  reason  for  high  buildings,  'that  a  limitation  of 
the  height  would  depreciate  the  value  of  the  property,  which 
has  been  regulated  to  the  present  standard.'  is  fallacious. 
AYhen  a  district  becomes  pretty  well  studded  with  fifteen  and 
twenty  story  buildings  owners  will  find  it  very  difficult  to 
rent  offices  on  the  lower  floors,  and  the  value  of  property 
must  decline. 

"  Many  of  such  buildings  are  notoriously  unsafe  from 
various  reasons  connected  with  the  method  of  construction 
and  the  nature  of  the  building  materials. 

"Another  constant  menace  to  these  buildings  is  from  cor- 
rosion. The  steel  frame  is  embedded  in  masonry,  where  it 
cannot  be  examined,  and  after  a  few  years  no  one  can  tell 
what  condition  it  is  in. 

In  many  instances  the  danger  of  settling  has  not  been 
provided  for  with  sufficient  care.  Such  settlement  is  calcu- 
lated to  throw  strains  upon  portions  of  the  framework  which 
they  were  never  intended  to  bear,  and  under  which  they 
would  give  way. 

"  Only  a  very  slight  unequal  settlement  would  be  re- 
quired to  shear  off  rivets,  the  failure  of  which  might  precipi- 
tate all  of  the  structure.  \Yhether  high  buildings  are  to  be 
permitted  or  not,  a  law  is  urgently  needed  that  the  outer 
TV. '(?//.$•  of  fire-proof  buildings  should  be  real,  instead  of  inasonr\- 
I'cuccr.  trulls,  capable  of  supporting  tJicinscl'i'cs.  The  space  that 
such  -i^alls  occup\  should  not  be  begrudged,  as  tliev  are  necessar\ 
for  the  safet\  of  the  building  and  tlie  surrounding  propcrt\.  and 
so-called  improvement  in  construction  Tv.7//V//  tends  to  lessen  the 
thickness  of  the  outer  trulls  should  be  looked  upon  TV.'////  sus- 
picion." 

The  above  is  an   example  of  the  criticisms   which   have 


FK;.   4(1. — (ii'AKANTY    Br i i.i) i NT. ,    HUKKAI.O.      Example  of 
side  Wail  built  before  the  Lower  Walls 
(Acllcr  &  Sullivan,  Arcl)itecte>.) 


the    Upper    (>ut- 


107 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  1 09 

gone  throughout  the  country  from  time  to  time.  Architects 
and  engineers  have  demonstrated  that  they  are  fully  able  to 
cope  w1'th  all  these  questions  of  modern  building-construc- 
tion, and  though  such  criticisms  continue  to  be  made  high 
buildings  continue  to  be  built. 

The  writer  believes  in  a  limitation  of  height  of  buildings 
to  the  extent  heretofore  mentioned,  but  he  is  impressed  with 
the  fact  that  all  these  criticisms  (excepting  a  few)  emanate 
from  a  lack  of  practical  knowledge  regarding  the  material 
and  construction  of  high  buildings. 

In  the  evolution  of  the  modern  office-building  it  is  a  fact 
that  a  building  without  masonry  walls  has  ceased  to  be  a 
wonder.  Steel  and  concrete  foundations  and  steel  frames^ 
supplanting  for  the  same  purpose  the  old  timber  of  our  fore- 
fathers, have  long  since,  by  a  mere  change  of  material,  en- 
abled us  to  build  houses  of  enormous  size  with  safety  and 
economy. 

The  Fisher  Building  of  Chicago,  an  eighteen-story  and 
attic  office-building,  has  three  fronts  on  three  different 
streets,  and  these  fronts  are  covered  with  cellular  terra-cotta 
on  the  outside,  not  in  imitation  of  a  wall,  but  following  up- 
ward the  steel  supporting  members  and  closing  in  the  tran- 
soms between  the  windows,  leaving  two  thirds  of  the  exterior 
to  be  enclosed  with  glass.  On  the  inside  the  outline  of  the 
rooms  is  denned  by  porous  terra-cotta  blocks.  The  only 
suggestion  of  a  wall  in  the  building  is  the  former,  but  this  is 
not  practically  a  wall,  for  it  is  supported  independently  at 
every  floor-level. 

Bricks  were  employed  only  in  backing  up.  and  in 
strengthening  the  terra-cotta. 

The  steelwork  of  the  building  was  started  October  12. 
1895,  the  top  story  November  u;  and  the  third,  fourth,  and 
fifth  stories  were  enclosed,  while  the  first  and  second  stories 


1 10 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


-\\'AI-I.-SKCTION,   CENTRAL 
BANK   BUILDING. 


FIG.     48. — WALL-SECTION    REC- 
OMMKNDED   KY   WRITER. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  Ill 

remained  open.  This  fact  clearly  proves  our  argument  that 
the  thick  and  heavy  walls  required  by  the  New  York  la\v  arc- 
quite  unnecessary. 

EXTERIOR  WALLS  OF  TIII-:  CENTRAL  BANK  BUILDING.— 
The  party-walls  of  the  Central  Bank  Building-  are  built 
strictly  according  to  the  Xew  York  law,  and  are  shown  by 
the  illustration  Fig.  47.  The  cellar-wall  is  36  inches  thick: 
basement,  32  inches  ;  first  story,  28  inches  ;  second  and 
third  stories,  24  inches  ;  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh 
stories,  20  inches;  eighth,  ninth,  tenth,  and  eleventh  stories, 
jo  inches;  and  the  four  upper  stories,  12  inches. 

For  decorative  effect  the  exterior  walls  facing  1 'roadway 
and  Pearl  Street  are  28  inches  for  the  first  and  second  stories, 
and  24  inches  from  the  second  to  the  roof.  At  every  floor- 
level  above  the  fourth  story  in  each  panel  between  the  ver- 
tical columns  there  is  inserted  a  girder  composed  of  two  steel 
beams  supporting  the  brick  masonry  of  each  and  every  story, 
transferring  the  weight  to  the  columns,  and  any  one  of  the 
panels  could  be  removed  without  detriment  to  the  one  di- 
rectly above. 

Below  the  fourth  floor-level  a  single  beam  is  inserted  at 
each  tier  of  beams  to  act  as  a  strut  and  tie  for  the  columns, 
and  the  weight  of  the  masonry  is  carried  directly  to  the  foun- 
dations. 

The  above  is  also  provided  for  in  the  Xew  York  law,  as 
follows  : 

"  XYhen  the  curtain-walls  are  20  inches  or  more  in  thick- 
ness and  rest  directly  on  the  foundation-walls  the  ends  of  all 
beams  may  be  placed  directly  thereon,  but  at  or  near  the 
floor-line  of  each  story  ties  of  iron  or  steel  encased  in  the 
brickwork  shall  rigidly  connect  the  columns  together  hori- 
zontally." 

This,  in  the  writer's  opinion  and  experience,  is  not  a  sat- 


112 


THE  PLANNING  AND    CONSURUCTION  OF 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  113 

isfactory  tie  for  the  lower  columns  of  such  high  structures. 
It  is  preferable  to  insert  sufficient  beams  to  carry  the  panel 
loads,  as  is  done  in  the  upper  stories,  and  connect  the  floor- 
beams  in  a  similar  manner,  thus  giving  to  the  framework 
greater  rigidity. 

\Ye  present  the  wall-section,   Fig.   48,  for  buildings  of 


FIG.   50.  —  DKTAII.S   OF   TIIIKD-S TORY    LINTKI.S    AND    CORNICE.    CENTRAL 
HANK    Mni.niNc. 

fifteen  stories  or  less,  and  feel  justified  in  recommending  it  as 
meeting  all  the  requirements  of  a  properly  constructed  skele- 
ton-frame. The  nine  upper  stories  are  to  be  enclosed  with 
a  12-inch  brick  or  concrete  wall  lined  with  porous  terra-cotta 
hollow  blocks,  and  the  lower  stories  to  be  built  of  a  H>-inch 
wall  and  lined  in  a  similar  manner.  Kach  panel  is  to  be  sup- 


114 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


ported  at  each  floor-level  with  a  girder  of  sufficient  strength 
to  carry  its  respective  wall.  The  columns  and  total  loads 
are  to  be  supported  upon  the  foundation  as  shown  and  de- 
scribed under  "  Cantilever  Girders." 


FIG.  51. — DETAIL  OF  THIRTEENTH-STORY  CORNER  WINDOW,   CKNTKAI, 
BANK   BUILDING. 

KXTKRIOR  \YALLS  DKCORATKD. — There  has  been  consid- 
erable improvement  in  connection  with  brick  masonry  as  a 
direct  result  of  the  use  of  steel  construction,  and  we  find, 
consequently,  that  more  care  is  taken  in  filling  the  joints, 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


U 


Il6  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

and  the  work  is  laid  up  more  solidly  in  pure  cement  mortar, 
which  is  necessary  to  protect  the  steel  from  corrosion. 

A  structure  erected  in  accordance  with  the  best  practice 
of  the  day  gives  a  better  opportunity  for  the  use  of  decora- 
tive terra-cotta,  moulded  and  tinted  bricks  and  all  varieties 
of  stone  ashlar. 

Terra-cotta  as  a  building  material  for  the  exterior  walls 
has  very  many  advantages.  It  affords  architects  an  oppor- 
tunity to  see  the  actual  full-size  details  of  the  more  orna- 
mental portion  of  their  design  before  the  work  is  burned,  as 
where  no  repetition  is  intended  no  moulds  are  used,  and  the 
work  which  is  afterward  to  be  burned  and  take  its  place  on 
the  building  is  the  model  itself. 

Another  important  and  practical  point  is  its  comparative 
lightness  to  stone.  For  building  purposes  it  is  generally 
made  of  hollow  blocks,  formed  with  webs  inside  so  as  tc  give 
extra  strength  and  to  keep  the  work  true  while  drying.  After 
each  block  is  set  in  its  proper  place  the  hollow  portions  are 
rilled  in  with  brick  and  cement. 

The  lightness  of  terra-cotta,  combined  with  its  resisting 
strength,  and  taken  in  connection  with  its  durability  and  in- 
destructibility, renders  it  especially  desirable  for  use  in  con- 
nection with  the  skeleton-frame. 

The  modern  employment  of  this  material  embraces  col- 
umns, pilasters,  capitals  and  bases,  sills,  jambs,  mullions  and 
lintels,  skew-backs,  arches  and  keys — in  fact  everything  per- 
taining to  the  decoration  of  the  exterior. 

In  the  exterior  walls  of  the  Central  Bank  Building  above 
the  granite  base  of  the  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  stories 
of  the  Broadway  front,  and  above  the  first  story  of  a  portion 
of  the  Pearl  Street  front,  terra-cotta  was  used  with  taste  and 
judgment.  The  illustration  Fig.  49  shows  the  spandrels  of 
the  Pearl  Street  second-storv  windows.  The  terra-cotta  is 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS, 


117 


* 4-S----4-   . 


5* 


FK;.  53.— TERRA-COTTA  COLUMN,  THIRTEENTH  AND    FOURTEENTH  STORIES, 
CENTRAL  BANK   BUILDING. 


Il8  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

made  with  ribs  and  the  section  shows  the  brick  backing  12 
inches  thick,  the  entire  spandrel  being  supported  by  a  steel 
beam  and  channel. 

The  illustration  Fig.  50  shows  the  arched  lintels  of  the 
third-story  windows  and  the  cornice  above  the  third  story, 
all  of  which  is  supported  in  the  same  manner  as  the  spandrels 
mentioned  above. 

The  illustration  Fig.  51  shows  the  corner  windows  of  the 
fourteenth  story,  and  the  illustration  Fig.  52  is  the  main 
cornice  of  the  building. 

This  cornice  has  a  projection  of  6  feet,  and  is  supported 
by  6-inch  steel-beam  cantilevers  extended  back  onto  the  roof 
and  there  secured  to  a  1 2-inch  steel  channel  running  along 
the  entire  front,  and  further  secured  to  the  roof-beams,  mak- 
ing a  strong  and  effective  appearance. 

The  illustration  Fig.  53  shows  the  terra-cotta  columns  of 
the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  stories. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


CHAPTER  V. 

FLOOR-CONSTRUCTION  AND  FIREPROOFING. 

THE  present  flooring  system  of  steel  beams  in  connec- 
tion with  other  material  which  has  been  adopted  by  archi- 
tects and  engineers  for  modern  building-construction 
methods  has  no  doubt  been  settled  for  some  time  to  come. 
In  fact,  the  system  seems  to  answer  all  requirements,  and  is 
economical. 

In  the  designing  of  such  floors  the  arrangement  must  be 
such  that  the  material  is  used  in  the  most  economical  man- 
ner; every  member  must  be  calculated.  There  must  be  suf- 
ficient material — no  more,  nor  less;  for  it  is  essential  not 
only  for  economy,  but  also  to  reduce  the  weights  of  the  dead 
loads  on  the  joints,  columns,  and  foundations,  and  the  con- 
struction should  be  as  light  as  consistent  with  perfect  sta- 
bility. 

The  loads  to  be  supported  by  the  construction  govern 
the  design  of  the  flooring  system.  The  dead  load  comprising 
all  the  materials  used  as  a  part  of  the  construction — that  is, 
floor-beams,  arches,  floors,  and  partitions — and  the  live  load 
the  weight  of  persons,  office  furniture,  stores,  and  movable 
goods. 

LIVE  LOADS. — The  building  laws  of  the  different  cities 
provide  for  the  live  load  to  be  carried  by  these  floor-systems. 
The  Xew  York  and  Boston  laws  require  100  pounds  per 
superficial  foot,  and  the  law  of  Chicago  70  pounds,  with 
proper  reduction  for  columns,  etc. 


I2O  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

For  proper  economy  100  pounds  is  certainly  too  much, 
70  pounds  is  high,  and  for  an  average  50  pounds  would  no 
doubt  be  sufficient.  \Ye  recommend  60  pounds  for  beams, 
50  pounds  for  girders,  and  for  columns  40  pounds,  the  office 
floor,  halls,  and  toilets  not  included. 

The  Xe\v  York  law  requires  that  the  total  live  load  be 
assumed  by  columns  and  girders,  but  the  Chicago  law  makes 
this  distinction:  "  It  is  quite  possible  that  the  beams  may 
carry  their  full  capacity  of  live  loads,  while  the  chances  are 
increasingly  less  that  the  girders  or  columns  will  ever  be 
required  to  carry  anywhere  near  their  full  capacity  if  a  full 
load  had  been  assumed.'' 

Messrs.  Blackall  &  Everett,  Boston  architects,  in  their 
experiments  of  live  loads  upon  some  of  the  large  Boston 
office-buildings,  found  that  in  210  offices  in  the  Rogers. 
Ames,  and  Adams  buildings  an  average  of  16.3  pounds  per 
square  foot  was  found  for  the  Rogers  Building,  i  /  pounds 
for  the  Ames,  and  16.2  pounds  for  the  Adams  Building. 

The  greatest  moving  load  in  any  one  office  in  the  three 
buildings  was  40.2  pounds  per  square  foot,  while  the  average 
for  the  heaviest  ten  offices  in  each  of  these  buildings  was  33.3 
pounds  per  square  foot.  Mr.  Blackall  came  to  the  conclu- 
sion that  "  if  these  figures  are  to  be  trusted  to  any  extent 
whatever,  then  even  under  the  most  extreme  conditions,  tak- 
ing a  pick  of  the  heaviest  offices  in  the  city  and  combining 
them  into  one  tier  of  ten  offices,  the  average  load  per  square 
foot  would  be  only  a  trifle  over  33  pounds,  while  for  all  pur- 
poses for  strength  an  assumption  of  20  pounds  would  be 
ample  in  determining  the  loads  on  the  foundation,  as  well  as 
the  columns  of  the  lower  stories." 

The  Boston  building  law  requires  that  the  floor-construc- 
tion be  so  designed  as  to  carry  the  following  live  loads  : 
Dwellings,  50  pounds;  office  floors.  100  pounds;  public 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  121 

buildings,  150  pounds;  and  for  stores  and  warehouses,  250 
pounds. 

The  Chicago  law  :  70  pounds  for  all  office-buildings, 
buildings  used  as  residences  for  three  or  more  families,  and 
all  hotels,  boarding  or  lodging  houses  occupied  by  twenty- 
five  or  more  persons. 

The  New  York  law:  70  pounds  for  dwellings  and  hotels, 
100  pounds  for  offices,  120  pounds  for  public  buildings,  150 
pounds  and  upward  for  factories,  warehouses,  and  stores. 

DEAD  LOADS. — In  dead  loads  we  have  actual  weight  to 
provide  for,  and  the  Xew  York  law  states  that  "  all  brick  or 
stone  arches  placed  between  iron  or  steel  beams  shall  be  at 
least  4  inches  thick  and  have  a  rise  of  at  least  i]  inches  to 
each  foot  of  span  between  the  beams.  Arches  of  over  5  feet 
span  shall  be  increased  in  thickness  as  required  by  the  Super- 
intendent of  Buildings. 

''  Or  the  space  between  the  beams  may  be  filled  in  with 
sectional  hollow  brick  of  hard  burned  clay,  porous  terra- 
cotta or  some  equally  good  fire-proof  materials,  having  a 
depth  of  not  less  than  i-j  inches  to  each  foot  of  span,  a  vari- 
able distance  being  allowed  of  not  over  6  inches  in  the  span 
between  the  beams." 

Dead  Floor-weights  in  the  Central  Bank  Building. — The 
dead  floor-weights,  as  actually  weighed  by  the  writer  and 
used  in  the  Central  Bank  Building,  were  as  follows,  in 
pounds  per  square  foot  of  surface  : 

7      pounds  steel  ~-  beams,  tie-rods,  bolts,  and  angles. 
32  arches  =  porous  terra-cotta  8  inches  thick. 

1.5  sleepers  =  spruce   sleepers   3x4    inches,    bev- 

elled;   1 8  inches  centres. 

2.5  rough    flooring  =  yellow    pine,    tongucd    and 

grooved. 


122  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

3 . 5  pounds  finished      flooring  =  =  maple,      tongued      and 
grooved. 

22  "       filling  =  ash    concrete,    dry,    about    6    inches 

thick. 

22  partitions  ==  terra-cotta  blocks,  3  inches,  and 

plastered,  assuming  that  the  weight  of  the 
partitions    would    be    distributed    over    the 
beams,  and  a  possibility  that  they  would  be 
changed  at  any  time. 
7 .  i  plastering  =  ceiling  of  rooms,  dry-plastering. 


95.6       "          =  Total. 

Dead  Floor-loads  in  the  Old  Colony  Building,  CJiicago. — In 
the  Old  Colony  Building,  Chicago,  the  following  dead 
weights  were  assumed  : 

Flooring 4  pounds. 

Deadening 18 

Tile  arches 35 

Iron 10 

Plastering 5 

Partitions 18 

Total 90 

The  dead  and  live  loads  used  in  the  calculation  of  the 
floor-system,  in  pounds  per  square  foot,  were  as  follows  : 

Beams.   Girders.   Columns.    Footings. 

Live 70    50    40 

Dead 90    90    90    90 


Total 1 60   140   130    90 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  12$ 

Dead  Floor-loads  in  the  Marshall  Field  Building,  Chicago. 
—In  the  annex  of  the  Marshall  Field  Building,  Chicago,  the 
dead  loads  were  as  follows  : 

Flooring,  |-inch  maple 4  pounds. 

Deadening 9 

Fifteen-inch  tile  arch 45 

Iron 12        " 

Plaster 5        " 

Partitions,  3-inch  Mackolite 20 

Total 95       " 

As  the  above  figures  refer  only  to  the  office-Moor,  other 
calculations  are  required  for  toilet-rooms  and  corridors 
which  have  no  wooden  floors,  but  are  covered  with  mosaics 
and  have  the  partition  covered  with  marble  wainscoting.  In 
these  cases  the  total  dead  weight  will  be  increased.  Such 
floors  weigh  on  an  average,  125  pounds  per  square  foot. 

TYPICAL  FLOOR-FLAX  OF  CENTRAL  BANK  BUILDING.— 
The  illustration.  Fig.  54,  shows  a  typical  beam-plan  of  the 
Central  Bank  Building  which  supports  the  dead  loads  of  the 
floors.  The  columns  were  arranged  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
equalize  the  loads  as  much  as  possible  upon  the  foundation, 
all  of  them  being  placed  about  15  feet  apart,  the  girders  and 
beams  being  as  nearly  the  same  length  as  it  was  possible  to 
make  them;  thus,  it  will  be  seen,  giving  an  economical  ar- 
rangement. 

The  illustration.  Fig.  55.  is  an  enlarged  panel  between 
four  columns.  The  girders  are  all  single  1 5-inch.  41  pounds 
per  foot,  steel  beams,  resting  upon  beam  seats  and  secured  to 
the  columns  by  knees  as  shown.  The  regular  floor-beams 
are  all  9-inch,  light  section,  steel.  21  pounds  per  foot.  These 


124  THE  PLANNING  AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


H— f 


-H 


y-J 


JL 


-"M 


i 

r- 


u 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


125 


beams  are  secured  by  knees  to  tbe  girders  and  set  i^  inches 
below  the  top  of  the  same,  thus  cheapening  the  construction 
by  the  omission  of  flange-coping.  It  will  be  noticed  in  this 


pf] 


L_     J 


LJ 


L    J 


Fin.   55. — Fi.ooR-r.\.\KL  IN   CKNTKAI.   HANK   HI-ILDIM;. 

illustration  that  the  tie-rod  holes  are  within  3  inches  of  the 
bottom  of  the  Q-inch  beams. 

This  is  important,  and  is  very  necessary  for  the  reason 
that  too  many  arches  have  fallen  out  of  floors  on  account  of 
the  tie-rods  not  being  low  enough  to  resist  the  thrust  of  the 
Moor-weight. 


126 


THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


FIREPROOFING  FLOORS. — The  fireproofing  of  such 
floors,  in  the  broad  sense  in  which  the  term  is  now  applied, 
should  embrace  incombustible  material  used  in  the  construc- 
tion, and  it  should  be  of  such  a  character  that  it  will  effectu- 
ally resist  disintegration  and  retain  its  strength  and  firmness 
under  all  the  conditions  that  may  arise  in  the  conflagration 
and  the  subsequent  operations  of  a  fire-department. 

For  many  years  there  has  been  a  demand  for  safe  and 
economical  systems.  This  demand  has  led  to  the  introduc- 


Fir,.   56. — COI.TMBIAN  METHOD. 

tion  of  many  systems  of  more  or  less  merit,  a  number  of 
which  may.  however,  be  said  to  be  in  the  experimental  state. 
The  consequence  is  that  a  few  of  our  so-called  fire-proof 
buildings,  on  account  of  imperfect  and  experimental  con- 
struction, are  not  actually  fire-proof. 

It  is  a  fallacy,  to  a  large  extent  believed  in,  that  iron  is 
the  only  material  for  so-called  fire-proof  construction,  and 
that  the  only  building  capable  of  effectually  resisting  fire  i* 
one  into  the  construction  of  which  iron  enters  as  a  substitute 
for  wood.  Admirable  as  such  construction  mav  be  when 


//A///    O/-'I-'1CI\-B L '//, I) INGS. 


127 


properly  built,  it  should  he  remembered  that  iron,  hy  reason 
< if  its  tendency  to  expand  in  severe  heat  and  hy  reason  of  its 
liability  to  bend  and  break  in  high  temperature,  is  a  most 
dangerous  material  unless  protected  from  the  effects  of  tire. 

Buildings  constructed  with  iron  beams  and  hollow-brick 
<»r  concrete  arches,  if  tised  for  office  purposes,  have  seldom 
sufficient  combustible  material  in  their  doors  to  destroy 
them:  but  if  tilled  with  merchandise,  as  in  the  case  of  ware- 


Fi<;.   57.  —  COUMKIAN    MKTUOD   \viin   CKII.I.NC. 

"nouses,  unless  such  beams  and  columns  arc  thoroughly  en- 
cased, destruction  is  inevitable. 

\\ithm  the  past  ten  years  method--  for  lireproolmg  ba\c 
advanced  rapidly,  and  few  can  realixe  the  encouraging  prog- 
ress made  in  the  introduction  and  practical  application  of 
the  various  systems.  fn  fact,  a  building  erected  at  the  pres- 
ent time  of  any  si/e  or  importance  is  an  exception  if  some 
method  of  fire-protection  is  not  incorporated  in  its  construc- 
tion. 

The  losses  hv  lire  durintr  the  last  twentv  vears  have  been 


128  THE   r LA XX IXC,    A X D    COX  STK  UCTJON   OF 

almost  unprecedented  in  the  history  of  this  country,  and  thi> 
loss  has  caused  extra  efforts  to  be  put  forth  by  the  promoters 
of  non-combustible  methods  for  its  manufacture. 

The  question  is  asked  time  and  again.  "  Can  a  building 
be  made  fireproof  ?  "  \Ye  maintain  that  a  building  can  not 
only  be  erected  fireproof,  but  that  when  so  designed  is  neces- 
sarily constructed  of  material  proof  against  the  action  of  lire, 
and  at  the  same  time  much  more  substantial  and  time-endur- 
ing than  a  combustible  form  of  construction. 

The  term  fire-proof,  when  applied  to  a  building,  contem- 
plates that  the  edifice  in  all  its  structural  parts  shall  be  formed 
entirely  of  non-combustible  material — meaning  therebv  that 
all  the  interior  and  exterior  of  the  structure  shall  be  built  in 
a  manner  calculated  to  successfully  resist  the  injurious 
action  of  extreme  heal  and  cold  water. 

The  partitions  for  dividing  the  various  floors  into  rooms. 
corridors,  etc..  should  be  built  of  absolutelv  non-combustible 
material,  and  when  the  roof  and  upper  ceiling  of  the  building 
are  treated  similarly  all  danger  of  spread  of  lire  is  made  im- 
possible. 

The  use  of  various  materials  introduced  for  the  purpose' 
of  lire-proof  protection  has  been  more  or  less  effective.  The 
general,  and  perhaps  to-dav  the  oldest,  modern  svstem  for 
floor-construction  has  been  the  brick  arch  between  iron 
beams;  then  followed  the  corrugated  iron  and  concrete  arch, 
the  hollow  tile,  flat  arch,  and  numerous  others  herein  de- 
tailed and  described.  All  these  systems  have  their  advan- 
tages, and  any  one  of  them  is  much  to  be  preferred  to  a 
wooden  form  of  construction;  but  they  have  disadvantages 
also,  when  compared  one  with  the  other. 

The  question,  then,  is  to  determine  which  method  of  con- 
>truction  is  the1  best  and  has  the  fewest  detects. 

Of  the  use  of  concrete  in  construction  little  need  be  said. 


UK; ii  o /•'/•/ c /•:-/•>' i  n.n /.W/.Y.  1 29 

It  is  a  conceded  fact  by  those  authorities  who  have  given  the 
subject  the  most  thorough  and  careful  stndv  that  concrete, 
as  a  fire-resisting  material,  is  unequalled. 

After  the  threat  conflagration  in  Chicago  the  committee 
who  examined  the  effects  of  this  tire  reported  that  concrete 
was  the  most  thoroughly  tire-resisting  material  that  had 
passed  through  the  ordeal. 

I ron  and  steel,  when  completely  embedded  in  and  pro- 
tected by  the  concrete  which  forms  around  it  in  a  homo<rene- 


« 

***1 


ous  cast,  is  undoubtedly  better  protected  from  the  effects  of 
heat  and  corrosion  than  would  be  possible  bv  anv  other 
method. 

In  Kurope,  where  concrete  has  been  used  in  building- 
construction  for  centuries  past,  its  efficiency  is  better  under- 
stood than  in  this  country.  Manx'  building  are  standing  in 
Kurope  to-day  which  were  constructed  of  concrete  more 
than  500  years  ago,  and  which  have  withstood  the  attacks 
of  cold  and  heat  for  all  these  centuries  and  are  vet  in  a  good 
state  of  preservation. 

1  he  fact  that  concrete  constantly  gams  m  strength  is  one 
of  its  greatest  advantages,  and  it  is  an  established  fact  that  a 
building  with  iron  and  steel  framework  embedded  in  con- 
crete is  indestructible. 

The  covering  of  the  metal  work  of  the  building  by  Inf- 
low burnt  clay  brick  and  porous  terra-cotta  has  stood  the 
test,  and  answers  all  tireprooting  requirements. 


THE   PLANXIXG    AXD    COXSTKUCTWX   OF 

\Yhen  properly  treated  during  the  process  of  manu- 
facture they  not  only  resist  intense  heat,  but  also  withstand 
the  sudden  contraction  caused  by  throwing'  water  upon  them 
when  hot. 

The  floors  of  a  building  built  of  rolled  steel  beams,  spaced 
at  proper  centres  consistent  with  the  load  to  be  supported, 
and  the  lengths  between  supports  should  be  encased  and 
protected  with  these  hollow  burnt-clay  arch-blocks,  and  so 
constructed  that  no  steel  is  exposed:  not.  as  is  too  often  the 
case,  an  inch  or  so  uho-i'c  and  hclo-ic,  but  3  or  _/  indies  of  coi'cnng 
should  he  used. 

The  mam  column  supports  should  also  have  3  or  4  inches 
of  covering:  also  all  furring,  especially  wall-furring,  running 
vertically  along  the  walls  and  forming  combustible  flues,  and 
last,  but  not  least,  all  partitions. 

In  such  a  building  what  is  there  to  burn  ".  Nothing  ex- 
cept the  contents,  flooring,  and  trim:  and  then  many  build- 
ings have  the  floors  covered  with  cement,  marble  tiling,  etc. 

Fire  originating"  in  such  a  building  as  above  cannot 
spread.  Downward  and  upward  it  meets  with  the  fire-proof 
floors  and  ceilings,  sideways  the  partitions  and  furring:  and 
whatever  max  be  the  contents  of  a  building  constructed  as 
above,  no  tire  can  spread  within  it,  and  an  incipient  conflag- 
ration can  be  checked  m  a  few  minutes  and  confined  to  the 
room  in  which  it  originated. 

Tin-:  \  Akioi's  FIRM-PROOF  MKTHODS  ix  FI.OOR-COX- 
STKrcTiox. — Of  the  various  systems  of  arches  now  in  use  we 
have  taken  the  following,  and  will  treat  of  them  in  their 
proper  order  : 

Columbian  System  of  Concrete  and  Steel. 
Roebling  Svstem  of  Concrete  and  \\  ire. 
Lee   i'orous  Tile-beam  Moor. 
Hollow   terra-cotta   blocks,   side   construction. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  I31 

Hollow  terra-cotta  blocks,  end  construction. 

The  Fawcett  Method  of  Floor-arch. 

The  Homan  or  English  Arch. 

The  Cleveland  Floor-arch. 

The  Rapp  Metal  Arch. 

The  Metropolitan  System. 

The  "  The  Multiplex  Steel  Plate  "  and  Concrete. 
THE  COLUMBIAN. — The  "  Columbian  "  is  a  concrete  and 
steel  system  which  consists  in  the  use  of  special  ribbed  bars 
of  steel  suspended  from  beams  and  supported  on  edge  by 
means  of  steel  stirrups,  which  have  the  profile  of  the  bar  cut- 
in  them.  These  bars  are  surrounded  by  and  completely  em- 
bedded in  concrete  composed  of  Portland  cement,  sand,  and 
furnace  slag-  or  screenings. 

Three  distinct  elements  of  strength  are  embodied  in  this 
construction:   First,  the  strength  of  the  steel  bar  on  edge. 


*-i-  -J 

.-jfLj. 


t—  r — 

FIG.   61. 

supported  from  the  beam;  second,  the  strength  of  the  con- 
crete; third  and  greatest,  the  strength  derived  from  the  com- 
bination of  the  steel  and  concrete,  which  may  be  subdivided 
into  t\vc  elements,  viz.,  the  tensile  strength  imparted  to  con- 
crete by  means  of  the  steel  embedded  in  it.  and  the  strength 
imparted  to  the  bar  by  means  of  the  concrete,  which  locks 
itself  between  the  ribs  of  the  bar  and  adheres  tenaciously  to 
it.  resisting  any  tendency  of  the  bar  to  deflection. 

This  strength  is  evidenced  by  the  various  tests  made 
under  the  supervision  and  inspection  of  experts  and  herein 
reported.  Under  a  great  overload  a  floor  constructed  with 


132 


THE  PLANNING   A1SD    CONSTRUCTION  Of 


this  system  may  be  deflected,  but  cannot  be  broken  sud- 
denly, as  in  such  a  case  the  bars  act  on  the  suspension  prin- 
ciple. 

On  December  14.  1894,  the  floors  constructed  in  the 
warehouse  of  L.  H.  Smith,  Pittsburg,  during  October  and 
November,  were  tested  in  the  presence  of  a  committee  of 
engineers  and  architects.  These  floors  were  constructed  to 
carry  200  pounds  per  square  foot,  live  load.  The  spans  were 


Fi<;.  62. — COLUMBIAN  STIRRUP. 

8  and  9  feet,  and  the  bar  used  was  a  2^-inch  section  spaced 
20  inches  apart. 

Concrete  composed  of  Alpha  cement  i  part,  sand  2^ 
parts,  and  furnace  clay  5  parts. 

The  drop-load  did  not  even  crack  the  plastering,  although 
the  drop  was  made  several  times  in  one  spot. 

The  ram,  weighing  238  pounds,  15  inches  by  15  inches 
square,  was  dropped  upon  the  centre  of  an  8-foot  span  and 
dropped  from  a  height  of  8  feet. 

In  another  test  the  floor-section  was  4  by  7  feet,  =;i 
inches  clear  of  the  beams,  or  30  square  feet,  and  carried  an 
equally  distributed  load  of  24,312  pounds,  or  810  pounds  per 
square  foot. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


133 


A  floor  constructed  in  the  St.  Cecilia  Parochial  School, 
New  York,  was  tested  in  February,  1895,  by  tne  ^ew  York 
Building  Department.  A  load  of  600  pounds  per  square 
foot,  clear  of  the  beams,  was  imposed,  which  remained  on 
the  floor  several  weeks.  A  drop-test  of  303  pounds,  from  a 
height  of  6  feet  on  centre  of  span,  repeated  several  times  on 


ro 


j, 


'f 


FIG.  63. 

the  same  spot  without  any  effect,  was  also  made.  The  beams 
on  this  floor  were  light,  and  would  not  admit  of  a  higher 
test. 

FIRE-TEST  OF  THE  COLUMBIAN  METHOD. — The  follow- 
ing test  was  required  by  the  Board  of  Underwriters  of  Pitts- 
burg,  Pa.,  for  the  Columbian  System  : 

BOARD  OF  FIRK  UNDERWRITERS  OF  ALLEGHENY  COUNTY. 
OFFICE,   No.  83  FOURTH  AVENTE, 

PITTSKTRG,  PA.,  March  4,  1895. 

Columbian  Fircproofing  Company  : 

GENTLEMEN — The  following  specifications  of  a  fire-test, 
on  fire-proof  floor-construction,  will  be  required  on  all  non- 
combustible  floor-construction  before  the  same  will  be  passed 
by  this  board  : 

Enclose  a  space  of  8  feet  square  with  a  brick  wall,  having 
a  protected  steel  beam  in  the  centre  of  same,  thus  having 
two  half-spans  of  floor-arch  enclosed;  said  beam  must  not 


134  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

rest  on  enclosure  wall,  but  must  be  a  1 2-inch  32-pound  beam 
with  a  span  of  16  feet  between  supports. 

Enclosure  must  be  so  arranged  as  to  have  a  flue  outlet 
and  a  door  opening  at  the  other  side  by  which  to  feed  fuel 
to  fire-bed. 

Place  furnace-bed  4  feet  below  bottom  of  arch,  and  main- 
tain a  mixed  coke  and  wood  fire  at  as  high  a  degree  of  tem- 
perature as  is  possible  for  at  least  one  hour;  then  beam  and 
arch  must  be  drenched  by  a  plug  stream  of  water,  hose  to  be 
2|-inch,  with  a  i-inch  nozzle,  under  a  pressure  of  65  pounds. 

While  fire  is  in  operation  the  span  of  the  floor  must  have 
a  load  of  750  pounds  to  the  square  foot  resting  on  same. 

The  test  must  be  witnessed,  and  in  charge  of  an  officer  of 
this  board.  Yours  very  truly, 

F.  C.  BIGGERT,  Assistant  Secretary. 

A  floor  was  prepared  in  exact  accordance  with  the  above 
and  the  result  is  herein  reported  : 

"  To  prove  the  merit  of  material,  the  Columbian  Fire- 
proofing  Company  gave  a  test  at  their  works,  corner  of  First 
Avenue  and  Grant  Street,  this  morning  that  was  a  success 
even  beyond  the  most  sanguine  hopes  of  the  owners  of  the 
company.  All  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Underwriters 
were  invited  to  be  present,  besides  the  fire  chiefs  and  several 
architects.  Among  those  present  were  Jno.  I).  Biggert,  of 
the  Hoard  of  Underwriters  ;  Deputy  Fire-marshal  Lang  ; 
Chiefs  Humphries,  Hennegan,  and  Steele,  of  the  Fire-depart- 
ment; and  a  number  of  firemen  from  Xo.  2  engine-house. 
The  construction  of  the  place  used  for  the  test  was  as  fol- 
lows: Space,  8  feet  square,  with  brick  wall,  having  a  pro- 
tected steel  beam  in  centre  of  same,  thus  having  two  half- 
spans  of  floor-arch  enclosed,  said  beams  not  resting  on  en- 
closure wall.  It  was  a  i  2-inch  32-pound  beam,  with  a  span  of 
10  between  supports.  The  enclosure  was  so  arranged  as  to 
have  a  flue  outlet  and  a  door  opening  at  the  other  side  by 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  13$ 

which  to  feed  fuel  to  fire-bed.  Furnace-bed  Xo.  4  was 
placed  below  the  arch,  and  a  coke  and  wood  fire  was  main- 
tained at  as  high  a  degree  of  heat  as  possible  for  an  hour. 
The  beam  and  arch  \vere  drenched  by  a  plug  stream  of  water; 
the  hose  was  2^,  a  No.  I  nozzle,  under  a  pressure  of  65 
pounds.  While  the  fire  was  in  operation  the  span  of  the 
fioor  had  a  load  of  pig  metal  weighing  750  pounds  to  the 
foot  resting  on  it.  This  was  the  test  prescribed  by  the  under- 
writers, and  was  witnessed  and  in  charge  of  one  of  the  offi- 
cers of  the  board." 

BOARD  OF  FIRE  UNDERWRITERS  OF  ALLEGHENY  COUNTY. 
OFFICE,  No.  83  FOURTH  AVKNUE, 

PITTSHUKG,  PA.,  May  24,  1895. 

The  Columbian  Fire  proofing  Company,  Nos.  20^  and  206  First 

Arcniic,  City  : 

GENTLEMEN — As  a  result  of  the  test  of  your  concrete 
construction,  witnessed  by  us  on  the  2ist  inst.,  I  beg  leave 
to  say  that  we  are  satisfied  with  that  type  of  construction  for 
fireproof  buildings.  Very  respectfully, 

F.  C.  BIGGERT,  Assistant  Secretary. 

It  is  scarcely  necessary  to  make  further  comment.  The 
test  was  more  severe  than  could  occur  in  actual  practice,  as 
it  was  confined  and  acted  entirely  upon  a  small  portion  of 
the  tloor,  directly  over  which  was  a  load  of  750  pounds  per 
square  foot  of  pig  iron,  or  double  the  estimated  load  for  the 
heaviest  storage-house.  Xo  injury  whatever  resulted  to  the 
tloor  from  the  fire  or  subsequent  drenching  with  water. 
Ti7/;V//  proi'cs  that  concrete,  as  a  fire-resisting  material,  is  un- 
c  quailed. 

THE  MONIER  SYSTEM.— Recent  tests  in  Berlin  show  that 
the  "  Monier  "  system  (a  Continental  method  used  largely 
for  viaducts,  bridges,  roofs,  etc.)  withstood  a  remarkable  tire- 
test,  and  proved  itself  fully  equal  to  any  material  tested  for 
fire-resisting  qualities. 


136 


THE  BUILDING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


For  centuries  past  concrete  floors  have  been  in  use  in 
Europe,  and  since  the  middle  of  the  seventeenth  century 
various  forms  of  concrete  and  iron  floors  have  been  in  use  in 
France.  Since  about  1840  such  forms  of  floors  have  been 
in  use  in  England  to  the  exclusion  of  almost  all  other  forms 
of  fire-proof  floor-construction. 

FIRE-TEST  OF  THE  BOYD-WILSON  FLOOR-ARCH  IN 
LONDON. — Tests  of  fire-proof  floor-construction  at  the 
Germiston  of  the  Arrol's  Bridge  and  Roof  Company,  Glas- 
gow, Scotland,  of  the  Boyd-Wilson  patent,  quoted  in  the 


ro 


FIG.   64. 

London  Architect,  were  as  follows:  Six  inches  rough  con- 
crete and  i{  inches  granite  finish  were  placed  on  a  furnace 
with  the  blast  turned  full  on  for  one  hour  and  ten  minutes, 
over  a  heat  sufficient  to  consume  and  burn  away  malleable 
iron,  and  throughout  this  test  the  upper  surface  remained 
cool.  The  flooring  being  removed,  the  under  side  was 
turned  up  and  instantly,  while  in  a  heated  state,  thoroughly 
drenched  with  cold  water.  There  was  not  the  slightest  sign 
of  living  or  disintegration  of  any  kind:  ij  inch  on  the  under 
side  only  was  affected  by  the  water,  and  this  in  a  short  time 
hardened. 

The  slab,  which  was  30x9x7]  inches,  was  then  placed 
on  bearings  2  feet  6  inches  apart,  and  broke  when  subjected 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


137 


to  a  centre  load  of  4060  pounds  and  was  crushed  at  a  pres- 
sure of  1500  pounds  per  square  inch. 

DETAILS  OF  THE  COLUMBIAN  SYSTEM  DESCRIBED. — The 
illustration  Fig.  56  shows  a  section  of  the  floor-beams  cov- 
ered with  the  Columbian  system,  forming  panelled  ceilings; 
the  concrete  is  3  inches  thick.  After  the  centring  is  taken 
down  box-casings  are  placed  around  the  lower  flange  of  the 
beam — supported  by  concealed  supports — in  such  a  manner 


as  to  leave  an  air-space  completely  around  beam.  The 
sleepers,  filling,  and  flooring  are  not  shown  in  this  illustra- 
tion. 

The  cut  Fig.  57  shows  a  suspended  ceiling  in  addition 
to  that  shown  by  Fig.  56;  it  is  made  of  concrete  2  inches 
thick. 

The  steel  sections  used  in  the  concrete  are  shown  by  the 
following  illustrations:  Fig.  58  is  a  i-inch  ribbed  bar;  Fig. 
59  is  r|  inches;  Fig.  60  is  2  inches,  and  Fig.  61  is  2\  inches 
deep. 

Fig.  62  shows  a  view  of  the  steel  stirrup  which  passes 
over  the  steel  flange  of  the  beams  and  supports  the  ribbed 
bars. 

The  faces  of  the  stirrup  are  perforated  as  shown  by  three 
illustrations — Figs.  63,  64,  and  f>5. 


138  THE  PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION  OF 

DEAD  LOAD  PER  SQUARE  FOOT  OF  THE  COLUMBIAN 
SYSTEM. — In  office-buildings  with  level  ceilings  the  follow- 
ing weights  are  calculated  as  dead  loads  in  the  Columbian 
system:  Concrete,  weighing  on  an  average  of  135  pounds 
per  cubic  foot,,  and  9-inch  beams  being  used  as  in  the  illus- 
tration Fig.  54  with  the  same  material  as  used  in  the  Central 
Bank  Building  : 

7.0  pounds  steel  =  beams,  tie-rods,  bolts,  and  angles. 

50.6       "       concrete  -~=  2^-inch    concrete    floor    and    2-inch 

concrete  ceiling. 
1.5  sleepers  =  spruce  sleepers,  3  x  4-inch,  bevelled, 

1 8-inch  centres. 
2.5  rough     flooring  =  yellow     pine,     tongued     and 

grooved. 

3.5  finished  flooring  =  maple,  tongued  and  grooved. 

18.6  filling  =  ashes  and  concrete  about  3  inches  thick. 

7.1  plastering  =  ceiling  of  rooms. 


=  Total. 

If  the  loads  of  the  partitions  were  assumed  to  be  placed 
upon  the  beams,  there  would  be  an  additional  weight  of  20 
pounds,  making  a  total  of  uo.8  pounds. 

THE  ROEBLIXG  FLOOR-ARCH.- — The  Roebling  system  of 
fire-proof  floors  and  ceilings,  constructed  as  herein  illus- 
trated, consists  of  a  wire-cloth  arch  stiffened  by  steel  rods, 
which  is  sprung  between  the  floor-beams  and  abuts  into  the 
seat  formed  by  the  web  and  lower  flange  of  the  I  beams.  On 
this  wire  arch  Portland-cement  concrete  is  deposited  and  al- 
lowed to  harden.  The  result  is  a  pleasing  monolithic  con- 
struction that  fulfils  the  requirements  of  a  floor. 

THE  ROEBLIXG  SYSTEM  CEILIXG.— The  ceiling  construc- 
tion consists  of  a  system  of  supporting  rods  attached  to  the 


///<///    OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  139 

lower  flanges  of  the  I  beams  by  a  clamp,  which  offsets  the 
rods  below  the  I  beams.  Under  these  rods,  and  secure!}' 
laced  to  them,  is  a  lathing"  with  the  stiffening-rods  at  right 
angles. 

The  strength  of  the  arch  depends,  of  course,  upon  the 
concrete,  while  the  wire  serves  principally  as  a  centring  for 
the  concrete  while  it  is  setting.  It  is  nevertheless  capable 
of  sustaining  a  load  of  300  pounds  per  square  foot. 

THE  ROEBEINC;  FLOOR-SYSTEM  WEIGHT. — In  an  or- 
dinary span  of  4  feet  (>  inches,  and  using  lo-inch  1  beams,  as 
per  Fig.  60,  the  weights  are  as  follows  : 

7  pounds  steel        beams,  tie-rods,  bolts,  and  angles. 
33  concrete       filling  to  top  of  beams. 

10  ash  concrete        between  sleepers. 

1.5   '         sleepers-  '-.spruce  sleepers.  2x3   inches,  bevelled, 
1 8-inch  centres. 

2.5    '         rough      flooring        yellow      pine,      tongued      and 
grooved. 

3.5    '         finished  flooring        maple,  tongued  and  grooved. 

7.5    '         plastering-      ceilings  of  rooms. 

1.1    '         ceiling  construction. 

1.3'         wire  centring  for  arches. 


67.4  '  Total. 

If  the  partitions  were  assumed  to  be  placed  on  the  floor, 
as  in  the  Columbian  system,  20  pounds  would  be  additional, 
making  a  total  of  87.4  pounds  per  square  foot. 

FIRE  AND  WATER  TEST  OF  THE  ROEIJLINC,  FI.OOR- 
SYSTEM. — This  floor-arch,  tested  by  the  Xew  York  I'uilding 
Department,  consisted  of  lo-inch  I  beams,  4  feet  centres,  the 
wire  arch  being  covered  on  the  top  with  concrete  consisting' 


140 


THE   FLAX  XING    AXD    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


of  i  part  of  Aalborg  Portland  cement,  2  parts  sand,  and  5 
parts  of  steam  ashes.  The  concrete  \vas  levelled  Hush  with 
the  I  beams,  producing  an  arch  having  haunches  about  9 
inches  dee])  and  a  crown  3  inches  thick  at  the  middle  of  the 
span.  Nailing-sleepers  2  v  3  inches  were  laid  crosswise  over 
the  top  of  the  beams  at  intervals  of  about  16  inches,  and 


Fi<;.   66. — TIIK   ROKKI.IM;   FI.OOK-ARCH   AND  CKII.IM;. 

concrete,  composed  of  i  part  Portland  cement,  2  parts 
sand,  and  10  parts  steam  ashes,  was  tilled  in  between  to  a 
depth  of  2  inches.  The  flat  ceiling  construction  under  two 
of  the  arches  consisted  of  5-16"  round  iron  rods,  at- 
tached by  i-inch  offset  clips  to  the  lower  tlange  of  the  i 
beams.  Stiffened  wire  lathing  was  laced  to  these  support- 
ing rods,  to  which  was  applied  machine-mixed  mortar 
gauged  with  plaster  of  Paris.  There  was  an  air-space  aver- 
aging about  4  inches  in  depth  between  the  Hat  ceiling  and 
the  floor-arches. 

1  hiration  of  fire-test.    11.10  A.M.  to    u.^S   P.M.;    tempera- 


//A;//  oj-t-iCK-Ki'ii.DiNds.  141 

tnrc,  u.oi  P.M.,  2(X)O  decrees;  12.10  P.M..  2150  degrees; 
12. 10  to  12.45  I>-M-.  -J5°  to  -400  degrees.  At  the  con- 
clusion of  the  fire-test  the  plastered  ceiling  and  exposed  con- 
crete arch  were  red-hot.  A  portion  of  the  brown  coat  of  the 
plaster.  2  feet  by  3  feet,  had  fallen  away  from  the  ceiling. 
After  the  water-test  half  the  plaster  was  washed  off  the  ceil- 
ing, leaving  the  wire  netting  exposed  at  some  places.  The 
concrete  floor-arches,  including  the  one  exposed,  were  intact 
and  uninjured.  The  final  deflection  of  the  1  beams,  after 
cooling  and  removing  load,  was  imperceptible. 

A  5-hour  test  of  an  arch  similar  to  the  one  above  was 
made.  At  the  conclusion  of  the  tire-test  the  ceiling  false 
work  and  plastering  had  fallen  down  and  the  lloor  had  de- 
flected perceptibly.  The  wire  centring  and  the  under  side  of 
the  rloor-arches  were  red-hot.  After  the  water-test  the 
floor-arches  were  found  to  be  apparently  uninjured.  The 
lire-streams  loosened  a  couple  of  the  ribs  of  the  wire  centring, 
but  had  little  or  no  effect  on  the  concrete  arch.  After  cool- 
ing the  test  load  of  ooo  pounds  per  square  foot  was  applied 
without  any  indication  of  failure. 

A  4-foot  section  of  one  of  the  floor-arches  so  tested  was 
subsequently  cut  free  from  the  rest  of  the  floor  and  tested 
for  strength  by  the  Building  Department.  The  iron  beams 
were  supported  by  timber  posts  from  below  and  a  concen- 
trated load  of  41.000  pounds  was  placed  on  an  area  of  10 
square  feet  in  the  middle  portion  of  the  arch.  Deflection 
of  arch  between  the  beams  ''\  inch.  After  removing  the  load 
the  arch  recovered,  the  final  deflection  being  .]  inch. 

The  following  table  of  weights,  etc..  may  be  of  service  in 
desi<niin<j'  ironwork  for  this  svstem  : 


I42 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    Of- 


\  Maximum  spacing  of  : 

be  "  leveled    above  <      lron  Boor-foamsV     Tlli 
utder'  s?de  Vfl'oor    '  pendent  of  s.ze  of  ,  T  ' 


beamstoaheigluof 


should    not 


ess  ,„  crown  i  Weight  per  square  foot 

",  ,      r""  "  I      ™\»*™§    «">*   «». 
crete  and  wire. 


8" 

4 

o" 

9" 

4' 

6" 

10" 

5' 

o" 

12" 

6' 

o" 

15" 

7' 

6" 

2.S  lb 
3<>    " 
33    " 
V) 
53    " 


In  spans  of  over  5  feet  allow  \  r,  inches  clear  rise  per  foot 
of  span. 

The  weights  given  are  for  concrete  to  the  level  indicated 
in  the  first  column  with  a  3-inch  crown,  and  for  all  wire  con- 
struction, including  arch  wire  for  floors  and  lathing  for  ceil- 
ing. 

The  concrete  consists  of  i  part  of  high-grade  Portland 
cement.  2  parts  of  sand,  and  5  parts  of  clean  steam  ashes. 

Add  for  plaster  8  to  10  pounds  per  square  foot;  the 
weight  of  the  structural  iron,  of  the  wood  or  other  finished 
floor,  and  of  the  filling  between  sleepers,  if  any,  must  also  be 
added  for  the  total  dead  load  of  floors. 

HOLLOW-TILE  ARCHKS. — A  porous  terra-cotta  tile  is  a 
name  given  to  a  composition  of  clay  and  sawdust  fashioned 
into  hollow  forms  and  burned  into  common  bricks,  in  which 
process  of  burning  the  sawdust  is  consumed,  leaving  a  por- 
ous earthen  tile,  having  the  quality  of  being  tire-proof, 
sound-proof,  dry,  light,  and  capable  of  resisting,  in  the  form 
of  an  arch,  when  set  between  floors,  a  considerable  weight. 

The  successful  adoption  of  hollow  flat  arches  in  the  floors 
of  office-buildings,  where  they  are  now  so  extensively  used, 
shows  conclusively  that  their  strength  is  more  than  equal  to 
the  demands.  Heavy  safes,  weighing  from  two  to  five  tons, 
are  almost  daily  moved  and  placed  on  these  floors,  and  the 
lest  of  practical  use  they  have  been  subjected  to  is  conclusive 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  143 

evidence  that  they  are  sufficient  for  the  purpose  for  which 
they  are  intended. 

METHOD  OF  SETTING  HOLLOW-TILE  ARCHES. — The 
manner  in  which  these  blocks  are  set  is  as  follows:  A  Hat 
centre  made  of  2-inch  planking,  supported  upon  4  <  4-inch 
joist,  hung'  to  the  floor-beams  by  means  of  ironwork,  is  sus- 
pended below  the  bottom  flanges  of  the  beams  at  the  proper 
level.  The  blocks  are  then  placed  side  by  side  upon  these 
centres,  the  joints  being"  formed  with  ordinary  cement.  The 
joints  are  broken  by  means  of  half-blocks  placed  alternately 
at  the  start.  The  skew-backs,  lengtheners  or  intermediate 
blocks,  and  keys  are  made  of  different  sixes  to  accommodate 
the  various  spans. 

\\  hen  the  joints  are  fairly  set.  which  in  ordinary  weather 
takes  from  twenty-four  to  thirty-six  hours,  the  centres  arc- 
slackened  down  and  moved  to  another  portion  of  the  build- 
ing for  further  use. 

The  upper  surface  of  the  arch  is  concreted  over  at  a 
sufficient  depth  to  bed  in  the  concrete  the  wooden  floor- 
sleepers. 

TESTS  OF  SIDE  AND  END  Cox  STRUCT  ED  HOLLOW-TILE 
ARCHES. — Various  tests  of  the  hollow-tile  arches  have  been 
made  repeatedly  during  the  past  few  years,  notable  among 
which  were  those  at  Denver.  Col.,  under  the  supervision  of 
Messrs.  Andrews.  Jaques,  and  Kantoul.  architects.  The 
specification  was  as  follows  : 

A  ==  A  still  load,  increased  until  the  arch  is  destroyed. 
B  —-Shocks,  repeated  until  the  arch  is  destroyed. 
C  ;  =  Eire  and  water,  alternating  until  arch  is  destroyed. 
D  =  Continuous  tire  of  high  test  until  arch  is  destroyed. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  ARCHES  TESTED. — All  the  arches  tested 
were  carried  on  lo-inch  steel  I  beams  weighing  33  pounds 
per  foot,  span  5  feet  centres.  Each  pair  of  I  beams  wa>  tied 


144 


THE    P  LA  XX I  KG    AXD    COX  STRUCTIOX    OF 


with  two  ;-inch  bolts,  the  bolts  being  placed  5  feet  4  inches 
apart,  the  holes  for  the  bolts  being  in  the  middle  of  the  web 
of  the  beams.  The  bottoms  of  the  beams  were  tied  together 
with  two  straps  made  of  -i-  x  i-inch  iron,  the  ends  being 
hooked  around  the  lower  flanges  of  the  beams  and  directly 
under  the  bolts.  The  1  beams  were  supported  upon  four 
brick  piers,  the  piers  being  12  inches  square,  capped  with 
bond-stone  and  resting  upon  footing-stones  2-\  feet  square, 
the  footing-stones  set  upon  hard  gravel. 

The  illustration  Fig.  67  represents  the  Pioneer  Arch,  side 
construction,  weighing  32  pounds  per  square  foot. 


Fir,.   67. — SF.CTION   OK   PIONKKK   ARCH   TSF.D  IN  DKNVK.R   TESTS 

rig.  08.  the   Lee  Arch,  was  made  of  porous  terra-cotta. 
34  pounds  per  square  foot. 


FIG.    6S. — SK.rno.N   <>i-    I.KK    END  MFTHOI>   ARCH    rsF.n    IN    DFNVF.K    TKSTS. 

Fig.  69.  the  \Yight  Arch,  weighed  40 1  pounds  per  square 
foot,  all  being  weighed  dry  before  setting  in  the  arch. 

Following  is  a  summary  of  the  tests  : 

7V,v/  «•/.    St ill-load  test ;  load  isas  1  feet  square. 

Arch  A. —  i.  Pioneer  Arch,  dense  tire-clay,  side  con- 
struction, broke  at  5420  pounds  of  pig  iron. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  145 

Arch  A. — 2.  Lee  Arch,  porous  terra-cotta,  end  method 
of  construction,  carried  15,145  pounds  of  pig  iron  for  two 
hours  without  breaking.  Afterward  broken  by  three  blows 
of  a  ram  weighing  134  pounds  and  dropped  from  a  height  of 
io  feet. 

Arch  A. — 3.  Wight  Arch,  of  dense  fire-clay,  side  con- 
>truction,  broke  at  8574  pounds. 

Text  H.   Dropping  test. 

Arch  I). — 4.  Pioneer,  of  dense  fire-clay,  side  construc- 
tion, broke  at  first  blow  of  a  ram  weighing  134  pounds 
dropped  from  a  height  of  6  feet. 

Arch   B. — 5.   Lee,  of  porous   terra-cotta,   end   construe- 


FH..   (n). — SECTION   01--    THK   WICHT   ARCH    USED    IN    THE   DENVER    TESTS. 

tion;  same  ram  dropped  on  it  from  a  height  of  6  feet  four 
times;  same  ram  dropped  on  it  from  a  height  of  8  feet  seven 
times;  arch  went  down  at  eleventh  blow. 

Arch  l\. — o.  Wight,  of  dense  lire-clay,  side  construction, 
broke  at  first  blow  of  same  ram  dropped  from  a  height  of  0 
feet. 

'/'est  C.   I:irc  and  icatcr  test. 

Arch  C'. — 7.  Pioneer,  of  dense  fire-clay,  side  construc- 
tion. Three  applications  destroyed  this  arch;  when  the  brick 
lurnace  was  removed  from  under  this  arch  collapsed. 

Arch  C". — 8.  Lee.  of  porous  terra-cotta,  end  construc- 
tion. This  arch  was  given  eleven  applications  of  the  water, 
and  at  the  end  of  twenty-four  hours  was  practically  unin- 
jured, as  it  required  eleven  blows  from  the  ram  used  in  the 
dropping  test  to  break  the  arch  clown  after  the  furnace  was 
removed  trom  under  it. 


146  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

Arch  C. — 9.  Wight,  of  dense  fire-clay,  side  construction.. 
This  arch  was  given  fourteen  applications  of  water,  and  after 
twenty-four  hours  very  little  of  the  arch  was  left,  and  it  col- 
lapsed as  soon  as  the  brick  furnace  was  removed  from  under 
it. 

Test  D.   Continuous  fire. 

Arch  I). — 10.  Pioneer.  9  inches  deep,  of  dense  fire-clay, 
side  construction.  After  having  a  continuous  fire  under  it 
for  twenty-four  hours  was  destroyed. 

Arch  D. —  ii.  Lee,  of  porous  terra-cotta.  end  construc- 
tion. After  having  a  continuous  fire  under  it  for  twenty- 
four  hours  was  practically  uninjured,  as,  after  the  furnace 
was  removed  from  under  it,  it  supported  a  weight  of  bricks 
of  12,500  pounds  on  a  space  3  feet  wide  in  the  middle  of  the 
arch. 

Arch  I). — 12.  \Yight.  of  dense  fire-clay,  side  construc- 
tion. After  having  lire  under  it  for  twenty-four  hours  wa> 
unable  to  carry  its  load  of  300  pounds  per  square  foot,  and 
collapsed  as  soon  as  the  brick  setting  was  removed  from 
under  it. 

In  the  fire  and  water  tests  it  was  noticeable  that  the  two 
arches  made  of  dense  fire-clay  dropped  large  pieces  of  the 
arch  at  almost  every  application  of  the  water,  while  those  of 
porous  material  were  comparatively  uninjured  at  the  close  of 
the  test. 

That  the  porous  terra-cotta  arches,  built  as  they  were 
here  with  the  so-called  end  construction,  were  practically  un- 
injured by  the  fire-tests  is  shown  by  the  fact  that  after  the 
furnaces  were  entirely  removed  these  two  arches  not  onlv 
supported  their  original  load  of  brickwork,  but  one  arch  wa> 
loaded  with  additional  brickwork  until  a  weight  of  12.500 
pounds  had  been  placed  upon  it,  and  the  other  arch  was  sub- 


HIGH    OI-FIL'E-BI-ILDIXGS.  1 47 

jected  to  a  dropping  test  and  required  eleven  1  flows  of  the 
piece  of  timber  weighing  134  pounds  to  break  it  down. 

As  far  as  the  material  goes,  the  effect  of  the  heat  seems 
to  have  been  worse  on  the  porous  terra-cotta  than  the  dense 
tile.  The  porous  terra-cotta,  when  subjected  to  the  direct 
action  of  the  heat,  was  badly  disintegrated,  so  much  so  that 
it  could  be  easily  crumbled  in  the  tinkers,  but  this  condition 
extended  up  from  the  bottom  only  about  i  inch;  above  that 
the  material  was  perfect,  and  although  the  bottom  webs  were 
disintegrated  the  arches  still  stood  in  place. 

The  material  in  the  dense  fire-clay  was  practically  un- 
injured, but  the  arch,  as  a  whole,  was  destroyed,  for  the 
reason  that  large  pieces  broke  off  from  the  bod}'  of  the  arch 
in  almost  every  case:  this  took  place  at  the  angles  of  the 
tiles.  The  mortar  seems  to  have  stood  better  than  the 
arches  themselves. 

Mr.  William  M.  Scanlan.  who  was  identified  with  the 
above  tests,  states  "  that  there  seems  to  be  no  reason  why 
porou>  tiling  should  not  be  chosen  as  the  best  material  for 
floor-arches."  The  clay  is  mixed  with  from  50  to  no  per  cent 
of  sawdust  by  bulk,  and  then,  after  thoroughly  drying,  the 
material  burnt  in  a  down-draft  kiln.  When  the  heat  in  the 
kiln  becomes  great  enough  tho  sawdust  in  the  mass  of  clay 
ignites  and  is  consumed,  thus  helping  to  burn  the  clay  all 
through  evenly,  and  also  leaving  little  cavities  or  cells  in  it. 
It  is  much  lighter  than  dense  tile,  but  it  has  a  toughness  and 
resilience  that  renders  it  more  reliable. 

A  point  that  is  not  generally  considered  is  that  for  the 
purpose  of  a  floor-arch  in  the  form  of  hollow  tiles  an  exces- 
sive crushing  strength  in  the  material  is  a  disadvantage,  for 
the  reason  that  the  denser  and  harder  the  material,  the  more 
brittle  it  is. 

lie  also  states  that  "  while  manufacturer.--  have  varied  the 


148 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 


shapes  of  tlie  end-construction  blocks,  the  original   square 
blocks  of  porous  tile  remain  the  simplest,  easiest  form  to 


FIG.  70. — LEE  END-CONSTRUCTION  TILE-ARCH. 

manufacture  and  to  build,  and  gives  the  best  results.''  Sec 
Fig.  70,  showing  a  section  of  the  end  arch,  and  Fig.  71 
showing  the  end-construction  abutment-tile. 


KM;.   71.  —  END-CONSTRUCTION  ABUTMKNT-TII.K. 

Fig.  72  is  the  side-method  arch,  in  which  the  hollows  in 
the  tile  run  parallel  with  the  supporting  beams,  and  the  dis- 


THK    WEAK    POINT 


Kir..   72.  —  SIDE-METHOD  Aucn. 

Doited  line  indicates  curve  of  pressure. 


position  of  the  material  in  the  arch  is  not  at  all  in  accordance 
with  proper  method  of  design,  inasmuch  as  the  line  of  pres- 
sure of  the  arch  has  no  solid  material  through  which  to  act, 


///(///    01-i-lL'E-HUlLDlXGS.  149 

and  the  abutment-blocks  arc  poorly  adapted  to  withstand 
a  shearing  strain  (see  the  weak  point  "  A  ").  Hence  arches 
built  after  the  side  method,  when  weighted  to  destruction-, 
invariably  fail  at  the  abutments  under  a  load  that  does  not 
develop  a  compressive  strain  of  more  than  a  small  fraction 
of  the  compressive  strength  of  the  material. 

In  the  end-construction  arch  the  disposition  of  the  ma- 
terial is  such  that  all  the  vertical  ribs  of  pressure  act  through 
solid  material  throughout  its  whole  length.  The  top  and 
middle  webs  aid  in  taking  the  end  pressure  at  the  middle  of 
the  span  and  the  only  part  of  the  arch  that  is  not  in  com- 
pression, vi/..  the  bottom  of  the  shell  which  furnished  the 
level  surface  for  the  ceiling  plastering. 

Whether  the  arch  be  built  on  the  side  or  end  method, 
the  objectionable  feature  of  the  end  method  is  still  there, 
ever  tending  to  spread  further  apart  the  supporting  beam, 
necessitating  thorough  tying  together  of  the  beams. 

I  beams  not  being  designed  to  stand  lateral  strains,  the 
thrust  of  the  arches  must  be  neutralized  by  efficient  tie-rods 
close  to  the  bottom  of  the  beams. 

The  desirability  of  extending  the  end-construction  arch 
to  large  spans,  and  the  necessity  of  making  the  structure  a 
beam  rather  than  an  arch,  led  to  the  arch  as  described  below. 

Tin-:  LKK  TKXSIOX-ROD  HOLLOW-TIM-:  FLOORING. — The 
Lee  system  of  Boor-arch  consists  of  porous  tile.  Portland 
cement,  and  cold-drawn  steel  wires — a  svstem  almost  identi- 
cal with  Thaddeus  Hyatt's  discovery  of  Portland-cement 
concrete  and  the  application  of  tie-bars  to  the  weak  part  of  a 
concrete-beam  construction  to  supply  the  needed  tensile 
strength  to  balance  its  comparatively  enormous  compressive 
strength,  making  both  parts  a  unit  in  resistance. 

\Yhen  a  straight  beam  is  subjected  to  a  bending  -.tress 
i'  becomes  more  or  less  curved,  bv  virtue  of  which  the  lower 


150  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

part  is  lengthened  and  the  upper  part  is  shortened  in  pro- 
portion to  the  depth  of  the  beam  and  the  difference  in  length 
between  the  radii  of  the  curves.  \Yere  the  beam  made  up  of 
horizontal  layers,  the  effect  of  the  stress  would  be  to  cause 
these  to  slide  one  upon  the  other;  but  the  beam  being  solid, 
the  particles  are  held  together  by  their  own  cohesion,  the 
shearing  strains  being  thus  opposed  by  the  cohesive  face. 
The  primary  strain  in  the  beam  on  the  lines  of  compression 
and  tension  being  upon  curved  lines,  the  disturbed  particles 
must  of  necessity  tend  to  arrange  themselves  in  harmony 
with  the  radical  lines  of  circles,  all  below  the  neutral  axis 
seeking  extension  and  all  above  compression. 

P.  H.  Jackson,  of  San  Francisco,  took  up  Hyatt's  system 
after  the  hitter's  death  and  improved  upon  it.  He  employed 
other  forms  of  ties,  such  as  small  1  beams,  for  strengthening 
purposes. 

Ernest  Ransome,  of  San  Francisco,  also  made  an  im- 
portant and  commendable  improvement  upon  Hyatt's  and 
Jackson's  systems  of  tension-members,  Ransome's  system 
being  a  square  rod  twisted. 

Lee's  system  of  tension-rods  laid  together  are  much 
lighter  than  those  mentioned  above,  and.  the  floor  being  of 
hollow  porous  tile,  a  considerable  reduction  in  weight  is 
therefore  gained. 

PROCKSS  OF  CONSTRTCTION  OF  TIIF  LFK  ARCH. — A 
temporary  form  of  centre  of  planking  is  first  laid  out  at  the 
proper  height  for  ceiling  lines,  upon  which  the  hollow-tile 
blocks  are  laid,  end  to  end,  in  rows  from  support  to  support, 
with  space  between  the  rows  (see  the  illustration  Fig.  73). 
Into  the  space  is  spread  a  layer  of  soft  mortar  made  of  Port- 
land cement  and  sand;  upon  this  layer  the  tension-rods  are 
laid  and  more  mortar  is  put  in,  entirely  surrounding  and  en- 
veloping' the  rods,  and  the  space  is  filled  to  the  top  of  the 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  151 

tiles.  The  ends  of  the  tile  resting  in  the  walls  are  filled 
solid  with  concrete  before  laying.  The  anchor-bolts  are 
placed  in  position  within  the  tiles  as  they  are  laid  in  place. 
In  from  four  to  seven  days  the  form  is  removed  and  the  floor 


Fi'..  73.  —  DKTAM.  SKCTION   OK  THE   LKK  TENSION-ROD  TII.K  ARCH. 

is  completed.  The  floor  is  united  together  throughout;  in 
effect  and  in  fact  it  is  one  piece. 

TKST  Xo.  i  OF  TIIK  LKK  TKXSIOX-ROI>  SVSTKM. — -A  test 
of  tin's  form  of  arch  was  made  May  2,  1892.  for  which  a  floor 
20  feet  clear  (see  illustration  Fig.  74)  and  4  feet  I  inch  wide 
was  built,  supporting  about  j 5.000  pounds  distributed.  The 
floor  deflected  i  inch  and  showed  no  rupture.  A  portion  of 
the  load  was  removed  that  day,  and  the  rest  remained  for  a 
day  or  two.  A  central  load  bearing  on  a  space  J  feet  wide, 
of  about  nooo  pounds,  was  applied,  and  left  for  several  weeks 
without  injury.  The  floor  has  remained  standing  out  of 
doors,  unprotected  up  to  date,  exposed  to  rain,  frost,  and 
heat.  It  has  been  tested  several  times  since,  and  is  appar- 
ently sound  with  its  present  load  of  u.ooo  pounds. 

TF.ST  X'o.  _'  OF  TIM-:  LKK  TKXSIOX-KOD  SVSTKM. — The 
following  is  a  summary  of  a  test  made  in  Xew  York  during 
April.  1895.  of  this  system  : 

The  span  was  jo  feet,  total  thickness   \$\  inches,  with  a 


152 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


cement  top;  weight  of  construction,  70  pounds  per  square 
foot,  or  5600  pounds  for  the  entire  floor.  Deflection  due 
to  dead  weight  of  floor-construction,  7-64  inch. 


Fn;.   7-).  —  WEKJHT   TEST  OF   THE   LEE   TENSION-ROD   HOLLOW-TILE   ARCH. 

Weight  was  applied  to  the  floor  by  piling  up  bricks  as  a 
centre  load  on  an  area  of  16  square  feet. 

The  deflections  caused  by  the  loads  were  as  follows  : 

1940  pounds  caused  a  deflection  of  5-64  inch. 


3-25° 

4128 

4564 

53ir> 
5600 

6240 
6580 
7000 


8-64 


]  4-64 
1  6-64 
1  8-64 
19-64 
22-64 


Upon  removing  the  weight  the  floor  resumed  its  original 
position.  The  uniformly  distributed  load  was  175  pounds 
per  square  foot. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILD1XGS. 


'55 


TEST  No.  3  OF  THE  LEE  TENSION-ROD  SYSTEM. — A  sim- 
ilar test  made  upon  a  14-foot  span  arch,  with  the  floors  9-] 
inches  thick,  supported  a  uniformly  distributed  load  of  200 
pounds  per  square  foot.  The  deflections  caused  by  the  loads 
were  as  follows  : 

2880  pounds  caused  a  deflection  of  3-16  inch. 
5400  15-64     " 

The  weights  being  removed,  the  floor  resumed  its  orig- 
inal straightness. 

THE  FAWCKTT  FLOOR-CONSTRUCTION. — The  Fawcett 
system  is  an  English  production,  and  consists  of  tubular  tiles 


Fit;.    75.- — THK   FAWCETT   FLOOR   ARCH. 

laid  diagonally  on  the  lower  flanges  of  the  steel  beams, 
placed  2  feet  apart,  being  the  diagonal  of  the  tile  at  right 
angles  to  the  I  beam.  The  bottom  of  the  tile  is  flat  (see  the 
illustration  Fig.  75),  and  flanged  so  as  to  touch  the  adjoining 
one,  leaving  a  space  above  to  receive  the  concrete.  The 
ends  of  the  tiles  are  joggled  and  rest  on  the  beams,  serving 
to  protect  the  under  side,  a  space  being  left  under  the  same 
I  beam  to  form  a  free  passage  for  the  air.  The  concrete  on 


154  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

the  top  bears  directly  on  the  I  beams,  thus  relieving  the 
strain  on  the  tiles,  the  under  side  of  which  is  scored  to  form 
a  key  for  the  plastering  of  the  ceiling. 

THE  FAWCETT  SYSTEM  TEST. — A  test  of  this  system  was 
made  by  the  New  York  Building  Department,  6-inch  I  beams 
being  used  and  the  tile  was  covered  on  the  bottom  with 
plastering,  and  the  concrete,  consisting  of  i  part  of  Atlas 
Portland  cement  and  5  parts  of  steam-ashes,  was  filled  in 
above  the  tile  to  a  level  of  2  inches  above  the  I  beams. 
Duration  of  the  fire-test,  9.33  A.M.  to  12.20  P.M.;  tempera- 
ture, 10.30  A.M.,  1850  degrees;  10.50  A.M.,  2200  degrees. 
After  1 1. 20  large  cracks  had  formed  in  the  walls,  and  it  was 
impossible  to  produce  temperature  above  1850  degrees.  At 
the  conclusion  of  the  fire-test  the  floor  had  deflected  consid- 
erably, and  the  under  side  of  the  tile  lintels  was  red-hot. 
After  the  water-test  the  lintels  had  cracked  oft"  and  fallen 
away  over  an  area  of  about  20  square  feet,  exposing  the  con- 
crete filling  above.  The  plaster  was  oft"  over  the  greater  por- 
tion of  the  ceiling.  The  following  day  the  floor  success- 
fully supported  the  test  load  of  600  pounds  per  square  foot. 
The  final  deflection  of  the  floor  was  about  3  inches.  The 
ultimate  strength  was  not  made. 

THE  RAPP  FLOOR-CONSTRUCTION. — This  is  a  system  of 
flooring  placed  in  the  regular  floor-beams,  consisting  of 
2x1-^  inch  special  tees,  as  shown  in  the  illustration  ( Fig.  76), 
resting  on  the  lower  flange  of  the  I  beam,  spaced  so  that  a 
brick  will  lie  between  the  flanges  of  the  tees,  which  are  held 
in  position  by  strap-irons  bent  and  fitting  the  tees  closely, 
forming  a  tie. 

These  strap-irons,  acting  as  ties,  hold  the  tees  rigidly  in 
position,  the  whole  space  being  filled  in  with  bricks  laid  flat 
and  grouted  with  cement  and  a  filling  of  ashes  and  cement 
to  the  under  side  of  the  rough  flooring.  Tt  is  capable  of  sus- 


HIGH    OFP'ICE-B  UILD1XGS. 


taining  a  load  of  800  pounds  per  square  foot,  the  cost  de- 
pending upon  the  thickness  of  the  material. 


Fir,.   7(1.  -- R.\ri'  FIRE-PROOF  FLOOR-CONSTRUCTION. 

TIIK  IvAi-i'  SYSTKM  TKST. — The  following  data  are  given  of 

a  test  made  of  this  system  by  the  Xe\v  York  Building  Depart- 
ment, the  steel  1  beams  being  10  inches  dee])  by  25  pounds 
per  foot,  spaced  4  foot  centres  and  16  feet  span.  Duration 
of  lire-test.  10  A.M.  to  3  P.M.;  temperature  at  11  A.M..  1800 
degrees.  About  an  hour  after  the  tire  was  started  a  piece 
of  plaster,  which  covered  the  bottom  of  the  arch,  fell  and  dis- 
abled the  pyrometer.  Subsequent  temperatures  were  indi- 
cated approximately  bv  the  fusing  of  copper  wire.  At  the 
conclusion  of  the  tire-test  the  greater  portion  of  the  plaster- 
ing had  fallen  away  and  the  under  side  of  the  tloor  was  red- 
hot.  Some  of  the  light  tees  sagged  somewhat.  After 
the  water-test  it  was  found  that  the  lire-stream  had  disabled 
a  number  of  the  brick  in  the  middle  portion  ot  the  ceiling, 
exposing  the  cement  filling  above  over  an  area  of  about  _>o 
square  feet.  The  tloor  later  sustained  the  ooo-pound  test 
successfully.  The  final  deflection  was  imperceptible. 

Tin-:  M  KTROPOI.ITAX  FLOOR-ARCH  SYSTKM. — The  Metro- 
politan floor  consists  simply  of  a  composition  of  75  per  cent. 


156  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

by  weight,  of  plaster  of  Paris  and  25  per  cent  of  wood  chips 
or  sawdust,  surrounding  the  steel  beams  of  the  building  and 
forming  horizontal  Moor-plates  between  them.  These  plates 
contain  a  series  of  suspended  cables  uniformly  adjusted  to  a 
g-inch  round  centre-bar  and  fastened  to  the  top  flanges  of 
the  floor-beams  by  hooks  made  of  Xo.  6  coppered  wire. 
The  cables  are  about  i±  inches  apart,  have  a  deflection  of 
about  2.>  inches,  and  are  composed  of  Xo.  12  galvanized 
steel  wires  twisted  together,  so  as  to  get  a  good  grip  in  the 
body  of  the  plate  and  reinforce  it  by  their  tensile  strength. 
The  flange  and  web  protection  is  cast  in  permanent  moulds 
of  light  wire  netting,  and  the  floor-plates  are  cast  in  tem- 
porary wooden  moulds  that  are  removed  as  soon  as  the 
plaster  has  set. 

The  ceiling  is  separate  and  independent  of  the  floor,  and 
is  made  of  mortar  plastered  on  Roebling  Xo.  20  wire  netting 
that  is  attached  to  i  *  -j-inch  square  transverse  bars  16  inches 
apart,  supported  from  the  lower  flanges  of  the  floor-beams 
by  2  '<-'  J-inch  clips. 

FIRE  AND  \YATEK  TESTS  OF  THE  METROPOLITAN  SYS- 
TEM.— An  arch  was  tested  May  19.  1897.  by  the  Xew  York 
Building  Department  in  a  manner  similar  to  that  described 
heretofore.  The  maximum  deflection  was  36-100  inch,  re- 
turning to  19-100  inch  immediately  after  the  fire  was 
quenched,  and  the  floor  was  practically  intact.  The  ceiling 
on  the  farther  side,  where  it  sustained  the  greatest  impact  of 
the  water,  was  almost  totally  destroyed,  including  the  wire 
1  netting,  only  the  i  /  {-inch  cross-rods  that  had  supported  the 
latter  remaining,  the  ceiling-plaster  having  entirely  disap- 
peared. Farther  back  the  netting  was  not  damaged,  and 
and  in  all  places  where  the  water  had  not  struck  the  plaster 
had  not  fallen.  The  bottom  flanges  of  the  beams  were  ex- 
posed, the  paint  being  unaffected.  The  whole  of  the  lower 


HIGH   OFflCE'BL'Il. 

])ortion  of  the  floor-plate  to  the  depth  of  about  an  inch  was 
softened  so  as  to  be  easily  penetrated  by  a  stick,  but  it  still 
retained  its  position  and  tire-proof  qualities  except  where 
washed  off  by  the  hose-stream,  and  the  floor-slab  was  intact 
and  otherwise  apparently  uninjured.  Shavings  in  contact 
with  the  lower  surface  of  the  floor-beam  flanges  were  found 
uncharred.  When  the  fireprooring  was  exposed  to  the  ac- 


• 


FH;.  77. — THK   ACMK   MK.TIIOD  OF   FI.OOK-AKCH. 

tion  of  the  flames,  the  wood  chips  were  found  charred  for 
about  an  inch  from  the  exposed  surface.  On  May  22  the 
load  on  the  floor  was  increased  to  600  pounds  per  square 
foot  over  the  entire  area,  producing'  a  deflection  of  44-100 
inch. 

TIIK  ACMK  FLOOR-ARCH. — This  arch,  Fig.  77.  similar  to 
the  Fawcett  method,  is  likewise  an  Fngli>h  production.  The 
hollow-tile  blocks  are  placed  in  a  dry  state  between  small 


158 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


I  beams  as  shown,  requiring  no  false  centring;  the  concrete 
is  then  filled  in  on  top,  making  a  monolith  construction  of 
concrete  and  fire-clay.  On  account  of  the  added  concrete 
the  strength  of  the  floor  is  increased  about  25  per  cent  above 
that  determined  by  the  beams. 

THE  "  MULTIPLEX  STEEL-PLATE  "  FLOOR-ARCH  SYSTEM. 
Fig.  77^7  illustrates  a  new  system  of  floor-arch,  composed  of 


FLOOR      LINE 


•LK.X   STKKL-PLATK  "   FI.OOK-AKCH. 


"E" 

Fi<;.    77</.  —  Tin-:   "  M 

a  steel  plate,  bent  as  shown  at  A,  in  combination  with  con- 
crete. The  top  and  bottom  of  each  manifold  have  reverse 
curves  of  such  form  that  the  vertical  sides  are  almost  as  deep 
as  the  whole  plate.  By  this  means  the  sides  of  the  plates 
will  transfer  the  load  to  the  end  bearings,  so  that  in  reality 
the  arch  consists  of  a  continuous  row  of  small  beams  capable 
of  sustaining  an  immense  load. 

The  detail  sections  B,  C,  D,  /:.  /;  of  Fig.  77</  show  the 
manner  of  applying  the  steel  plate.  />'.  C,  and  /)  represent 
its  construction  in  a  simple  form,  being  placed  upon  the  top 


HIGH    OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  159 

of  the  I  beams  of  the  floor.  In  E  and  /*  it  is  placed  upon  the 
bottom  flanges  of  the  I  beams. 

/•?,  C,  and  1'  have  in  addition  a  hanging  ceiling,  made  of 
wire  and  plaster,  similar  to  that  in  the  Roebling  lloor-arch. 

This  arch  is  practically  the  lightest  which  has  come  under 
the  inspection  of  the  author,  weighing  but  35  to  39  pounds 
per  square  foot  in  combination  with  Portland-cement  con- 
crete, and  capable  by  its  construction  of  sustaining  immense 
loads.  \Ye  have  seen  tests  of  lo-ft.  spans  with  a  load  of  over 
550  pounds  per  square  foot  where  the  deflection  was  less 
than  i  inch,  while  spans  of  6  feet  with  a  load  of  over  1500 
pounds  per  square  foot  showed  the  same  deflection.  \\'e 
have  also  seen  a  span  of  6  feet  carry  safely  a  load  of  -'137 
pounds  per  square  foot. 

For  office-buildings  using  6-ft.  spans  carrying  150  pounds 
per  square  foot  the  deflection  by  tests  will  be  but  .03  of  an 
inch,  and  for  lo-ft.  spans  with  a  load  of  150  pounds  but  .14 
of  an  inch. 

If  the  steel  plate  and  concrete  be  placed  upon  the  top  of 
the  1  beams  as  at  C.  and  a  ceiling  of  wire  and  plaster  be  sus- 
pended from  the  plate,  there  will  be  a  total  dead  load  of  not 
over  55  pounds  per  square  foot. 

Tin-:  PRACTICAL  VALUF  OF  TIII-:  DIFFKRKXT  SYSTEMS  IN 
Hi'iLiM  NC.S,  AND  Ti-'.STS  MY  TIM-;  WRITER. — The  value  of  the 
different  floor  svstems  in  use  at  the  present  time  lies  in  pro- 
tection, in  that  they  furnish  both  a  covering  for  the  steel  or 
supporting  members  of  the  building,  and  bearing  power  to 
sustain  the  floor-weights.  As  a  support  for  the  floors,  they 
a. re  capable  of  carrying  with  perfect  safety  any  load  the  floor- 
beams  are  designed  to  bear.  As  regards  their  fire-resisting 
qualities,  however,  the  writer  has  come1  to  the  conclusion 
that  all  of  the  materials  if  subjected  to  great  heat  would  be 
destroyed. 


l6o  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

The  tests  heretofore  described  for  concrete  have  been 
taken  from  seemingly  reliable  sources,  and  in  the  Pittsburg 
test  of  the  Columbian  method  as  high  a  degree  of  heat  as 
possible  was  maintained  for  an  hour;  in  the  Roebling  test  by 
the  Xe\v  York  Building  Department  it  is  stated  that  the 
arch  was  apparently  uninjured;  in  the  Boyd-Wilson  test  the 
blast  was  turned  on  full  for  one  hour  and  ten  minutes,  pro- 
ducing a  heat  sufficient  to  consume  malleable  iron  com- 
pletely. A  Portland-cement-concrete  block  24  inches  long, 
8  inches  wide,  and  4  inches  thick  was  tested  by  the  writer  by 
heating  it  in  a  furnace  for  about  fifteen  minutes  until  it  was 
cherry-red-hot  on  one  side;  on  taking  it  out  and  striking  it 
with  a  shovel  it  crumbled  into  powder.  Another  block  of 
the  same  material  when  taken  from  the  furnace  was  sub- 
jected to  a  stream  of  water  from  a  i-inch  garden-hose,  which 
washed  the  cement  and  sand  clear  of  the  small  broken  stone. 
These  blocks  were  made  about  six  months  before  the  tests 
and  were  quite  dry,  the  proportion  of  the  material  being  2 
parts  of  Portland  imported  cement,  5  parts  sand,  and  9  parts 
small  broken  stone,  a  mixture  commonly  used  in  founda- 
tions. 

To  test  the  efficiency  of  hard  and  porous  tiles  the  writer 
also  placed  an  8-inch  hard-tile  floor-block  in  the  furnace  for 
ten  minutes,  and  on  lifting  it  from  the  fire  it  fell  apart  im- 
mediately: it  was  red-hot  on  one  side  only,  its  bottom  bed 
separating  as  in  the  hard-tile  tests  already  mentioned.  An 
8-inch  porous  tile  was  treated  in  the  same  manner;  it  held 
together  much  better,  but  when  the  water  was  thrown  on  it 
and  it  was  struck  lightly  with  the  shovel  it  went  to  pieces 
completely. 

In  practice  the  writer  has  never  had  occasion  to  use  any- 
thing except  terra-cotta  for  fi reproofing,  but  from  his  inves- 
tigations upon  the  subject  he  has  concluded  that  with  any  of 


JflGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  l6l 

the  systems  now  used  in  high  office-building  construction, 
where  the  floors  are  made  solid,  the  beams  entirely  covered 
in  a  substantial  manner,  and  the  columns  well  protected — 
that  is,  with  a  double  row  of  thick  blocks — any  heat  likely  to 
be  generated  would  not  destroy  the  structure.  In  all  ex- 
terior skeleton  framework  we  strive  to  cover  the  metal  with 
ordinary  building-bricks. 

PARTITIONS. — \Yhere  hollow  tile  and  patent  blocks  are 
ordinarily  used  for  partitions,  steel  channels  or  angles  with 
headpieces  of  the  same  material  should  be  placed  at  the  door 
openings  instead  of  timber  studs. 

FIRE-PROOF  BUILDING  CONSTRUCTION  IN  THE  PITTSBURG, 

PA..   FIRE. 

The  fire  in  Pittsburg.  Pa.,  which  occurred  on  May  3. 
1897,  's  important  as  giving,  perhaps,  a  more  severe  test  of 
these  buildings  than  any  to  which  the  same  class  of  buildings 
have  been  subjected  before.  In  view  of  the  magnitude  of 
the  fire,  and  the  character  of  the  buildings  attacked,  a  full 
presentation  is  thought  desirable.  The  following  detailed 
description  is  extracted  from  the  Engineering  Xe^'s  and 
Architecture  and  Building,  to  whose  courtesy  I  am  also  in- 
debted for  the  use  of  photographs  and  cuts. 

To  a  full  understanding  of  the  fire,  its  origin,  and  the  re- 
lation of  the  different  buildings  to  each  other,  it  will  be 
necessary  to  refer  to  the  map  shown  in  Fig.  78.  The  fire 
started  in  the  Jenkins  Building  (a  large  grocery-store),  and 
was  discovered  by  the  night-watchman  in  a  barrel  of  paper 
and  other  refuse  at  the  bottom  of  the  elevator-shaft.  After 
an  effort  on  the  part  of  the  watchman  to  stop  it  by  means  of 
a  chemical  fire-extinguisher,  which  he  found  unavailing,  the 
fire-department  was  called,  but  did  not  arrive  until  IJ.JOA.M., 


1 62 


THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


when  the  fire  had  gained  such  headway  that  ten  minutes  later 
the  flames  burst  through  the  windows,  and  every  floor  was 
burning  fiercely.  The  large  store  of  oil,  sugar,  molasses, 
hams,  etc.,  with  which  the  building  was  filled,  furnished 
abundant  food  for  the  flames. 

The  firemen  had  for  some  time  previously  abandoned  the 


FIG.  78. — SKETCH-MAI'  SHOWING  REI.ATIVK  LOCATION  OK  Bm. DINGS  BTKNKU 

IN     THE    PlTTSBL'RG     FlKK,     MAY      3,     l&<)~. 

hope  of  saving  the  Jenkins  Building,  and  had  turned  their 
streams  upon  the  large  dry-goods  store  of  Joseph  Home  & 
Co.  and  the  neighboring  office-building  of  Durbin  Home. 
Despite  their  efforts,  however,  the  woodwork  of  both  these 
buildings  near  the  tops  began  to  burn  at  about  i  o'clock, 
and  a  few  minutes  later  the  flames  from  the  Jenkins  Building 
had  leaped  the  street  and  set  fire  to  the  inflammable  contents 
of  the  dry-goods  store  windows.  At  almost  the  same  time 
the  office-building  began  to  burn.  From  this  time  on  the 
spread  of  the  fire  was  rapid,  and  a  few  minutes,  according  to 
various  reports,  were  sufficient  for  both  the  office  and  store 
buildings  to  become  a  mass  of  flames  so  fierce  as  to  drive  the 


///(,//    OI-I-lCi:-BL'lLDL\GS.  163 

firemen  from  I'enn  Avenue  and  Fifth  Street  to  the  roofs  of 
the  building's  surrounding  the  fire.  FYom  these  points  of 
vantage  at  the  rear  of  the  Home  buildings,  and  on  the  far 
side  of  Fifth  Street,  and  from  the  windows  of  the  Methodist 
Hook  Building  the  firemen  directed  their  streams  and  pre- 
\ented  the  tlames  from  crossing  F"ifth  Street  or  reaching  the 
rear  of  the  Home  buildings,  but  the  narrower  Cecil  Avenue 
was  passed.  The  new  IMiipps  Office  Building  was  badly 
scorched,  and  the  Methodist  Book  Building,  above  the 
fourth  floor,  was  completely  gutted  of  its  contents.  In  ap- 
proximately two  hours  from  the  time  of  its  first  discovery, 
therefore,  the  tire  had  destroyed  the  three  larger  buildings 
of  the  group  shown  by  Fig.  7<S,  a  half-dozen  smaller  struc- 
tures, and  had  damaged  severely  a  number  of  other  structures 
c'.djacent  to  the  centre  of  the  conflagration.  To  resist  its 
progress  the  entire  lire  department  of  the  city  of  1'ittsburg 
and  the  neighboring  city  of  Allegheny  had  been  called  upon. 

To  an  understanding  of  the  lesson  of  this  lire  attention 
need  only  be  called  to  the  four  larger  buildings,  viz.,  the  Jen- 
kins, where  the  tire  started,  the  Home  dry-goods  store,  the 
(Durbin)  Home  Office  Building,  and  the  Methodist  Book 
Building.  The  Jenkins  Building  was  of  what  is  known  as 
"sl<  >w-burning  c<  mstructi<  m."  I  he  walls  were  <  >f  brick,  and  the 
floor-system  of  wood  and  stringers  carried  on  iron  I  beams: 
the  plan  \.  shaped,  with  lour  sides  open  to  streets  and  alleys; 
it  was  six  stories  high.  The  windows  were  protected  by  iron 
shutters  on  Cecil  Avenue  and  private  alley.  The  contents 
of  the  building  were  a  general  line  ot  wholesale  groceries. 
Mid.  particularly, large  quantities  of  oil.  sugar,  molasses,  lard, 
hams.  etc..  all.  of  course,  exceedingly  inflammable  material-. 
The  building  and  its  contents  were  completely  destroyed, 
only  a  few  fragment  of  the  outer  walls  remaining  standing. 

The  Home  drv-irood-  -'ore  was  of  modern  steel  skeleton 


164  THE  PLANNING  AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


FIO.  2.— PLAN  OF  THIRD  FLOOR  OF  HORNE  STORE,  SHOWINQ  NATURE  OF  STEEL  FRAMING. 

FIG.   79.— PLAN    OK  THIRD    FLOOR  OK    HORNE    STORE,   SHOWING    NATURE, 
OK  STKKL  FRAMING. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  165 

construction,  size  177  ft.  2  in.  by  118  ft.  2J  in.,  the  walls  of 
each  floor  being  carried  by  the  steel  frame.  It  had  six 
stories,  a  basement  and  an  attic,  and  its  front  elevation  stood 
i  10,  feet  high  from  the  sidewalk  to  top  of  cornice. 

Transversely  each  floor  was  divided  into  five  panels  by 
four  longitudinal  rows  of  six  columns  each.  At  each  floor 
the  columns  were  connected  longitudinally  by  steel  girders, 
which  carried  the  1 5-inch  I-beam  floor-stringers  spaced  4 
feet  i  i  {  inches  apart,  centre  to  centre.  Fig.  79  is  a  plan  of 
the  third  floor. 

All  the  steelwork  was  protected  by  a  nreproofing  of  hard 
clay  tile,  the  floor-arches  being  9  inches  dee])  and  sprung  be- 
tween rising  skews,  as  shown  by  Fig.  80.  On  top  of  the  tile 


Fir,.  So. —  HARD-TILE  FI.OOK-AKCH  CONSTRTCTION,  HORNE  STORK. 
arches  was  a  sleeper-fill  of  3  inches  of  concrete.  The  arches 
were  of  the  side-construction  type.  The  column  and  beam 
flange  protection  was  also  hard  clay  tile,  and  its  general 
nature  is  pretty  clearly  shown  by  the  view.  Fig.  <Si.  The 
ceiling  between  the  sixth  floor  and  the  attic  was  of  hard  clay 
book  tile  attached  to  T  iron.  At  the  rear  of  the  building  the 
windows  were  protected  by  wooden  shutters  covered  with 
>heet  iron.  Fach  floor  was  open  throughout,  and  the  light 
and  elevator  shafts  and  the  stairway  were  open  into  each 
floor.  The  front  and  west  sides  of  the  building  had  very 
large  window-areas,  as  shown  in  Fig.  82.  'I  he  windows 
were  not  protected  in  any  way  from  exposure  to  tire.  Fx- 
tending  transversely  across  the  building  on  the  first  story 
and  between  the  rear  wall  and  the  sixth  transverse  row  of 
columns  was  a  balconv. 


166  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

EFFECTS  OF  THE  FIRE. — Fig.  81  is  a  view  of  the  first 
floor  looking  toward  the  southeast  corner  and  showing  the 
wreck  of  the  elevator-shaft  framing,  the  first-floor  columns 
and  the  second-floor  beams  and  girders,  and  gives  a  general 
idea  of  the  character  of  the  damage  done. 

In  most  cases  the  tile  on  the  columns  was  broken,  leav- 
ing them  bare  in  part.  In  the  sixth  transverse  row  of  col- 
umns, where  the  flames  from  the  burning  balcony  struck 
them,  the  tile  for  3  to  5  feet  was  invariably  injured,  some- 
times entirely  stripped  from  the  metal.  The  greatest  dam- 
age was  done  to  the  columns  on  the  east  side  of  the  build- 
ing. Apparently  the  lire  was  most  intense  on  this  side,  from 
other  evidence  given  farther  on  as  well  as  from  this  showing; 
but  there  also  remains  to  be  considered  the  effect  which  the 
falling  water-tank  may  have  had  to  displace  the  tile. 

Turning  now  to  the  floor-arches,  the  examination  of  the 
ruins  showed  that  between  the  first  and  second  floors  the 
arches  in  panels  I  and  II  were  in  place  and  apparently  capa- 
ble of  bearing  a  very  good  load,  but  the  bottom  flanges  of 
the  arch  tiles  were  broken  here  and  there  pretty  uniformly 
over  the  whole  area.  The  bottom  flanges  of  the  girders  and 
stringers  also  showed  bare  in  numerous  places.  In  panels 
IV  and  Y  nearly  all  of  the  arches  were  totally  destroyed. 
(  )n  this  side  of  the  building  were  the  elevators,  and  all  of  the 
elevator-shaft  framing  and  several  of  the  connecting  floor- 
stringers  were  torn  out  by  the  fall  of  the  water-tank,  and  the 
debris  remained  on  the  first  floor,  as  shown  by  Fig.  81.  The 
shaded  area  shown  on  Fig.  79  indicates  the  boundaries 
within  which  the  fall  of  the  tank  took  out  or  bent  and  twisted 
the  floor-framing.  The  damage  was  not  alike  on  all  floors, 
the  fifth  and  sixth  showing  the  worst  effects,  but  it  appeared 
doubtful  if  much  of  the  girder-work  within  the  shaded  area 
could  be  saved.  On  the  floors  above  the  second  the  con- 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  169 

dition  of  the  arches  varied  but  little  from  that  already 
described,  but  if  anything"  was  somewhat  better.  It  was 
noticeable  that  little  destruction  of  the  T-iron  and  book-tile 
ceiling-  was  caused  by  the  fire,  although,  of  course,  the  fall  of 
the  tank  had  torn  a  large  hole  through  the  ceilings  and 
dislodged  many  of  the  adjacent  tile.  The  condition  of  the 
concrete  sleeper-fill  was  not  easy  to  ascertain,  owing  to  the 
foot  or  more  of  debris  covering  it,  but  it  was  noticed  that 
the  sleepers  had  been  burned  out  nearly  clean  wherever  a 
place  could  be  cleared,  and  also  that  the  concrete  was  pretty 
well  disintegrated.  It  should  be  stated,  however,  that  this 
examination  was  not  carried  very  far,  owing  to  its  difficult}' 
and  also  to  the  fact  that  a  part  of  one  of  the  arches  under 
study  dropped  out,  leaving  a  yawning  hole  at  the  feet  of  the 
examiner,  who  immediately  sought  safer  though  possibly 
less  profitable  fields  of  investigation. 

Among  the  more  special  structural  damages  to  the  build- 
ing were  the  bulging  out  of  the  east  wall  near  the  top,  the 
peeling  away  from  the  girders  of  the  terra-cotta  front  in 
places,  and  the  very  bad  splintering  and  spalling  off  of  the 
stone  entrances  and  trimmings  on  the  first-story  fronts.  A 
particularly  notable  feature  was  the  action  of  the  wood  and 
sheet-iron  shutters  protecting  the  rear  windows.  Except 
where  they  had  obviously  been  opened  after  the  fire  only  one 
of  these  shutters  was  found  open,  although  all  were  badly 
warped  by  the  heat.  An  examination  ot  such  as  were  acces- 
sible showed  either  the  sheet-iron  covering  intact  or  else  the 
inside  covering  burned  away  and  the  wood  charred  partly 
through,  but  the  outside  sheeting  unbroken.  I'nless  all  evi- 
dence fails,  the  volume  of  flame  which  passed  through  these 
shutters  must  have  been  confined  to  such  as  burst  through 
the  crevices  due  to  the  warping.  As  already  noted,  this  rear 
wall  was  the  boundary  of  the  progress  of  the  fire  northward. 


I/O  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

PROGRESS  AND  INTENSITY  OF  THE  FIRE. — The  testimony 
of  eye-witnesses  and  the  logic  of  conditions  are  about  all  the 
evidences  available  to  show  the  progress  of  the  fire  in  the 
building.  The  fire  was  communicated  from  the  Jenkins 
Building  across  the  street  and  about  65  feet  away,  and  it  en- 
tered through  the  windows  of  the  south  front,  probably 
being  most  intense  at  the  southeast  corner.  It  appears  to 
have  caught  on  all  six  floors  at  about  the  same  time,  and  the 
flames  poured  up  through  the  centre  light-area  and  the  ele- 
vator-shaft as  through  chimneys.  There  being  no  parti- 
tions, the  flames  also  had  full  sweep  along  each  floor. 

As  indicating  the  intensity  of  the  heat,  the  debris  found 
in  the  building  furnishes  approximate  evidence.  Practical!  v 
all  of  the  combustible  contents  were  burned  to  ashes,  although 
occasional  bits  of  cloth  in  the  centre  of  large  rolls  and — at 
the  very  rear  of  the  building — the  inner  leaves  of  books  were 
found  only  partly  destroyed.  On  the  other  hand  a  number 
of  cast-iron  standards  for  the  counter-stools  were  found 
partlv  burned  or  melted  awav,  while  the  crockery  and  glass- 
ware on  the  fifth  and  sixth  floors  had  fused  together  into  a 
mass.  The  frames  of  bicycles  were  twisted  into  knots,  and 
the  saddles,  rims,  and  other  combustible  parts  were  entirelv 
gone. 

ESTIMATE  OF  THE  SALVAGE. — Probablv  So  per  cent  of 
the  steelwork  and  a  considerable  part  of  the  outside  walls 
can  be  saved  intact  and  used  as  a  basis  upon  which  to  con- 
struct a  new  building.  It  would  seem  that  hardlv  any  of 
the  fireproofing  could  be  lett  standing;  tor  while  portions 
of  it  may  be  serviceable,  they  are  so  scattered  that  it  will  be 
less  expensive  to  fireproof  the  steel  entirely  anew. 

The  Home  store-building  was  designed  bv  the  late  \V.  S. 
Eraser,  architect,  of  Pittsburg,  Pa.,  and  erected  by  A.  and  S. 
XYilson.  of  the  same  citv.  The  contractor  for  tire  steelwork 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  1/3 

was  the  Carnegie  Steel  Company,  and  for  the  tireproofing 
the  Pittsbtirg  Terra  Cotta  Lumber  Company.     The  build- 
ing was  erected  in  1894  at  a  cost,  it  is  stated,  of  $700,000. 
FIRE  IN  THE  HORNE  OFFICE-BUILDING. — This  building; 

o 

was  erected  about  the  same  time  as  the  store-building  ad- 
jacent, and  the  steel  framework  is  almost  identically  of  the 
same  design,  viz.,  Z-bar  and  plate  columns,  built-up  Moor- 
girders,  and  15-inch  I-beam  stringers.  The  fireproofing 
was  of  porous  terra-cotta  tile,  the  floor-arches  being  9  inches 
thick  and  sprung  from  rising  skews.  A  3-inch  concrete 
sleeper-fill  covered  the  tile.  The  end  type  of  floor-arch  con- 
struction was  used,  the  spans  of  the  arches  being  4  feet  iij 
inches.  The  rear  wall  and  one  side  wall  of  the  building  were 
party-walls  and  had  no  windows,  but  the  front  wall  and  Cecil 
Avenue  side  had  windows,  as  shown  by  Fig.  8j.  On  each 
floor  the  building  was  divided  into  offices  by  4-inch  porous- 
tile  partitions,  and  at  the  rear  were  the  elevator-shaft  and 
stairway.  The  features  of  construction  chiefly  notable  in 
comparison  with  the  construction  of  the  Home  store  are  the 
use  of  porous  terra-cotta  instead  of  hard  tile,  and  the  end  sys- 
tem of  arch  construction  instead  of  the  side  system. 

The  fire  was  communicated  from  the  Jenkins  Building 
across  the  street,  and  it  completely  cleaned  the  combustible 
materials  from  ever}'  floor.  The  fireproofing  was  less  dam- 
aged near  the  front  of  the  building,  both  the  floor-arches  and 
partitions  standing  quite  well,  as  shown  by  Fig.  8j.  Toward 
the  rear  the  damage  was  severe,  as  shown  by  Fig.  83,  show- 
ing the  remains  of  a  number  of  the  4-inch  tile  partitions. 
The  first-floor  rooms,  which  were  used  for  stores,  were  open 
clear  to  the  rear  of  the  building,  and  there  was  considerable 
evidence  to  show  that  the  flames  had  passed  along  these 
rooms  and  thence  up  the  elevator-shaft  and  stairway  to  the 
rear  of  the  floors  above.  On  the  whole  the  heat  appeared 


1/4  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

to  have  been  slightly  less  intense  in  this  building  than  in  the 
neighboring  store,  although  there  was  probably  not  such  a 
great  difference.  A  very  considerable  part  of  the  fireproof- 
ing  can  be  used  again,  and  the  walls  and  steelwork  are  in 
much  better  shape  than  in  the  store-building  adjacent. 

FIRE  IN  THE  METHODIST  BOOK  BUILDING. — This  build- 
ing is  on  the  east  side  of  Cecil  Avenue  and  is  separated  from 
it  by  a  car-barn  one  story  high  and  about  20  feet  wide.  Its 
total  distance  from  the  Jenkins  Building  is  approximately 
45  feet.  The  building  is  rectangular  in  plan,  with  its  Penn 
Avenue  front  and  Cecil  Avenue  side  divided  into  offices, 
which  are  separated  from  each  other  and  from  the  hall,  stair- 
way, and  elevator-shaft  by  metal-lath  and  wooden-stud  par- 
titions. The  floors  are  concrete  arches  constructed  as  shown 
by  Fig.  84.  the  span  being  16  feet  and  the  thickness  of  the 
arch  6  inches,  with  a  2-inch  sleeper-fill.  The  concrete  was 
composed  of  i  part  Portland  cement,  3]  parts  sand,  and  o 
parts  blast-furnace  slag.  The  bottom  Manges  of  the  beams 
were  haunched  around  and  wrapped  with  expanded  metal. 

The  fire  was  communicated  from  the  Jenkins  Building 
and  entered  the  windows  of  the  offices  located  on  the  Cecil 
Avenue  side.  The  most  of  the  damage  was  done  above  the 
fourth  floor  and  in  the  offices  located  about  midway  of  the 
exposed  side,  neither  the  rear  nor  the  front  offices  being  so 
badly  injured.  In  the  rooms  showing  the  most  intense  fire 
the  office  furniture  and  contents  were  entirely  destroyed.  On 
the  sixth,  seventh,  and  eighth  floors,  where  the  damage  was 
greatest,  the  metal-lath  and  wooden-stud  partitions  were 
burned  through  between  different  offices  and  between  the 
offices  and  hallway,  the  doors  and  door-frames  were  gone, 
and  the  woodwork  mostly  destroyed.  Owing  to  the  fact 
that  there  was  but  little  to  burn  in  the  hall  no  great  damage 
was  done:  but  if  the  conditions  had  been  different  the  fire 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  177 

could  easily  have  been  communicated  through  the  breaks 
in  the  partitions.  The  floor-arches  were  denuded  of  plaster, 
leaving  the  concrete  bare.  To  the  structural  body  of  the 
arches  little  damage  seemed  to  have  been  done,  although 
one  or  two  arches  showed  a  slight  deflection.  In  adjusting 
the  insurance  two  of  these  deflected  arches  were  condemned. 
The  general  appearance  of  the  partitions  and  floor-arches 
in  one  of  the  offices  is  shown  by  Fig.  85.  which  is  a  fairly 
representative  example  of  the  conditions  found  elsewhere. 
The  opinions  of  observers  differed  as  to. the  comparative  in- 
tensity of  the  fire  in  this  and  in  the  Home  store  and  office 


Expanded  Metal 

Fu;.  84. — CONCRETE  FLOOR-ARCH  CONSTRUCTION,  METHODIST  BOOK 

Hm. DING. 

buildings,  but  the  evidence  of  the  ruins  indicates  that  the 
Home  buildings  suffered  from  the  greatest  heat. 

As  regards  other  adjacent  buildings  there  is  little  of  in- 
terest as  relates  to  fireproofing.  It  may  be  noted,  how- 
ever, that  at  the  rear  of  the  Home  store  the  Spear  Plow 
\Yorks  Building,  containing  large  amounts  of  lumber,  was 
located,  while  to  the  east  of  the  Methodist  Book  Building 
was  the  Duquesne  Theatre.  The  passage  of  the  flames  into 
cither  of  these  buildings,  besides  destroying  them,  would 
have  opened  to  the  progress  of  the  fire  a  large  number  of 
small  stores  and  dwellings  utterly  incapable  of  affording  re- 
sistance to  the  conflagration.  The  two  fire-proof  structures. 
however,  protected  the  plow-works  and  the  theatre  from  any 
serious  damage,  and.  as  already  stated,  were  the  boundaries 
of  the  fire  in  these  directions.  In  the  opposite  direction 


178  THE  PLANNING   AA'D    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

Fifth  and  Liberty  streets  were  the  boundaries.  The  total 
property  loss  from  the  conflagration  is  estimated  at  $3,000,- 
ooo,  of  which  the  loss  on  the  Jenkins  and  Home  buildings 
constitutes  the  bulk. 

The  above  gives  the  story  of  the  fire  with  sufficient  detail 
for  a  fair  comprehension  of  what  actually  took  place.  It  will 
not  do  to  arraign  modern  fire-proof  construction  on  the 
evidence  here  presented.  The  Home  dry-goods  store  and 
the  Home  office-building  were,  with  their  plate-glass  fronts, 
evidently  too  open  to  attack  from  the  outside,  and  were  in- 
vaded. A  large  stock  of  inflammable  goods  scattered  over 
a  large  floor-area,  with  a  light-shaft  offering  access  from 
floor  to  floor,  rendered  the  building,  whatever  its  construc- 
tion, especially  vulnerable.  The  following  careful  review  of 
the  subject  by  the  editor  of  the  Engineering  Xeics  presents 
very  clearly  the  lesson  of  the  lire. 

Tin-:  ENGINEERING  NEWS  REVIEWS  THE  PITTSBURG 
FIRE. — Considering  the  evidence  in  its  general  aspects  first, 
several  facts  of  broad  significance  attract  attention.  The 
lapid  progress  and  intensity  of  the  fire  are  especially  evident. 
The  reasons  for  this  are  not  far  to  seek,  being  evidently  the 
presence  of  vast  quantities  of  inflammable  materials  upon 
which  the  flames  could  feed  and  the  open  exposure  of  these 
combustibles  to  easy  ignition,  especially  in  the  Home  store 
and  office  buildings.  Indeed,  there  seems  to  be  some  irony 
in  calling  buildings  fire-proof  which  oppose  hardly  anything 
to  a  fire  from  across  the  street  more  sturdy  than  plate  glass. 
In  the  Home  store,  too.  after  the  flames  had  gained  access 
through  the  open  front,  there  were  no  dividing  partitions  to 
delay  their  progress,  and  even  the  different  floors  were  open 
to  each  other  by  a  large  light-shaft  and  several  smaller  verti- 
cal openings.  Indeed,  the  conditions  in  this  structure  could 
hardly  have  been  more  favorable  for  the  rapi  spread  of  the 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  l8l 

flames.  Given  such  conditions  it  is  obviously  only  a  ques- 
tion of  sufficient  fuel  to  feed  it  for  a  lire  to  destroy  any  fire- 
proofing. 

Turning  now  to  the  adjacent  office-building,  it  will  be 
noticed  at  once  that  the  provisions  against  the  spread  of  tire 
were  somewhat  better  than  in  the  store  building.  The  front 
exposed  to  the  fire  was  fully  as  weak,  it  is  true,  but  there 
were  dividing  partitions  both  transversely  and  longitudinally 
above  the  first  floor,  although  not  very  strong  ones,  and 
fewer  and  smaller  vertical  openings.  It  is  reasonable  to  as- 
sume that  these  facts  account  in  some  measure  for  the  better 
condition  of  the  fireproofing,  although  doubtless  the  smaller 
stock  of  combustibles  and  possibly  the  use  of  porous  tile  and 
the  end  construction  of  the  floor-arches  also  contributed  to 
the  more  favorable  result.  Another  fact  which  is  of  interest 
in  connection  with  the  fire  in  this  building  is  that  the  rlames 
appear  to  have  passed  along  the  first  floor,  which  was  open 
to  the  rear,  and  then  to  have  ascended  the  elevator-shaft  and 
the  stairway  to  the  rear  rooms  of  the  floors  above.  The 
building  was  thus  attacked  by  the  flames  nearly  simultane- 
ously in  the  front  and  in  the  rear. 

A  LESSON  TO  BE  LEARNED  BY  THE  PITTSBURG  FIRE. — 
Before  proceeding  further  it  is  well  to  consider  for  a  moment 
what  the  lesson  is  that  is  taught  by  the  general  facts  previ- 
ously outlined.  It  seems  to  us  to  be  simply  that  the  protection 
of  buildings  against  fire  does  not  stop  with  the  rearing  of  a 
steel  skeleton  and  clothing  it  with  an  integument  of  incom- 
bustible and  non-conducting  material:  but  includes  imper- 
vious outer  walls,  with  a  minimum  of  window  and  door 
areas,  and  these  protected  by  fire-proof  shutters,  frequent 
dividing-walls  and  enclosed  elevator-shafts,  stairways,  and 
similar  vertical  openings.  A  provision  for  fighting  lire  is 
also  an  important  consideration,  although  in  a  fire  like  the 


1 82  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

one  under  consideration,  occurring  in  the  night  and  spread- 
ing so  rapidly  as  it  did,  there  is  very  little  opportunity  to  use 
the  ordinary  building-hose  and  hand-grenades. 

A  second  fact  of  prime  significance  in  connection  with 
the  fire  as  a  whole  is  that  the  three  fire-proof  buildings, 
namely,  the  two  Home  buildings  and  the  [Methodist  Book 
Building,  established  the  boundaries  to  the  progress  of  the 
flame  in  two  directions.  In  this  respect,  at  least,  they  proved 
of  inestimable  value,  since  if  the  fire  had  once  passed  them 
it  would  have  had  a  fertile  field  of  small  buildings  filled  with 
lumber  and  combustible  merchandise  to  feed  upon.  The 
question  may  with  reason  be  asked  here:  why.  if  these  build- 
ings furnished  so  little  opposition  to  the  flames  at  their 
fronts,  did  they  so  efficiently  restrict  their  passage  at  the 
rear  ?  The  answer  to  this  question  is  evidently  found  in  the 
fact  that  in  the  [Methodist  Book  Building  and  the  Home 
office-building  the  rear  walls  were  of  brick  and  without  win- 
dows, while  in  the  Home  store-building  the  rear  wall  had  a 
small  window-area  as  compared  with  the  front,  and  all  win- 
dows were  closed  with  fire-proof  shutters.  It  seems  the 
irou\"  of  fate,  almost,  that  these  very  shutters  which  had  been 
built  to  protect  the  store-building  from  its  apparently  more 
dangerous  neighbor  should  have  served  at  their  first  trial 
the  opposite  purpose  of  saving  that  neighbor  from  destruc- 
tion. 

But,  not  to  stray  too  far  from  the  main  thought,  let  us 
see  just  what  the  efficiency  of  these  protections  proved  to  be. 
As  already  noted,  the  fire  did  not  pass  to  the  building  ad- 
iacent  to  the  windows  covered  by  them.  Further  than  this. 
investigation  showed  that  while  the  window-framing  and  the 
merchandise  adjacent  to  it  were  in  ashes,  none  of  the  shutters 
had  been  burnt  through.  Only  one  shutter  was  seen  which 
seemed  to  have  been  burst  open  by  the  fire  or  the  attack  of 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  183 

the  firemen  upon  it.  although  all  were  more  or  less  warped. 
The  heat  to  which  these  shutters  were  subjected,  however, 
must  have  been  very  intense,  for  only  a  few  feet  from  them 
were  found  masses  of  half-melted  crockery  and  glass-ware 
and  the  distorted  tubing  of  bicycle-frames.  These  tests  were 
certainly  crucial  ones,  and  that  they  were  so  successfully 
withstood  speaks  stoutly  for  the  value  of  tire-proof  shutters. 

Unfortunately,  this  favorable  evidence  cannot  be  supple- 
mented by  any  very  reliable  records  of  the  action  of  the  shut- 
ters on  the  Cecil  Avenue  side  of  the  Jenkins  Building,  as  this 
wall  fell  early  in  the  conflagration,  and  only  the  evidence  of 
more  or  less  unreliable  eye-witnesses  of  the  lire  is  available 
for  consideration.  According  to  one  report  in  a  local  news- 
paper these  shutters  held  until  heated  to  a  white  heat  and  did 
not  permit  the  flames  to  pass,  but  how  much  longer  they  re- 
mained effective  is  nowhere  stated.  It  is  a  fact,  however, 
that  the  Methodist  Book  Building  directly  opposite  these 
windows  was  the  last  of  the  larger  buildings  to  take  tire,  but 
this  was  doubtless  due  to  a  considerable  extent  to  its  smaller 
exposure  of  window-area,  so  that  the  existence  of  shutters 
on  the  Jenkins  Building  cannot  be  positively  asserted  to  have 
been  the  cause  of  its  later  ignition.  The  evidence,  we  think, 
may  be  pretty  justly  summarized  by  stating  that  nothing  can 
be  said  unfavorable  to  the  efficiency  of  these  shutters,  while 
a  good  deal  can  be  said  in  their  favor. 

Passing  to  a  consideration  of  the  damage  done  by  the  tire 
to  the  more  purely  structural  features  of  the  several  build- 
ings, one  is  impressed  at  once  with  the  splendid  showing 
made  by  the  steel  frames.  Xot  a  single  steel  member  can  be 
said  to  have  been  torn  from  its  position  in  the  structure  by 
the  heat  of  the  tire  or  the  destruction  of  its  protecting  fire- 
proofing.  In  the  Home  store-building  at  least  50  per  cent 
of  the  columns  and  floor-beams  were  found  partly  or  wholly 


184  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

uncovered,  but  only  slight  bends  were  found  in  two  or  three 
columns.  The  thing  responsible  for  the  damage  to  most  of 
the  injured  steelwork  in  this  building  was  the  fall  of  the 
heavy  steel  water-tank  from  the  roof,  and  this  accident 
seems  to  have  been  due  to  the  reprehensible  construction  of 
the  tank-supports  on  the  roof,  which  were  of  wood  that 
burned  away  and  allowed  the  tank  to  crush  onto  the  light 
roof-framing.  The  steelwork  in  the  Home  office-building 
showed  no  injury  except  for  occasional  bent  floor-stringers, 
and  that  in  the  Methodist  Book  Building  did  not  seem  to  be 
injured  at  all. 

These  facts  appear  to  us  to  be  very  significant.  Much 
has  been  said  at  one  time  and  another  regarding  the  horrible 
distortion  which  might  be  expected  should  one  of  our  mod- 
ern steel  skeleton  structures  be  subjected  to  an  extensive 
fire,  and  it  is  very  gratifying  to  have  these  assurances  refuted 
by  practical  test,  if  only  to  the  extent  afforded  by  the  Pitts- 
burg  fire.  It  will  probably  be  contended  by  no  one  that  ex- 
pansion and  contraction  did  not  occur,  perhaps  to  a  greater 
extent  than  the  uncovered  framework  indicates,  but  it  can 
be  asserted  that  the  danger  of  wholesale  destruction  from 
this  cause  does  not  seem  to  be  very  great.  Despite  all  this. 
however,  it  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  Pittsburg 
structures  had  large  lateral  dimensions  and  no  very  great 
height  in  comparison,  and  also  that  a  very  high  character 
of  steel  construction  was  used.  A  similar  fire  in  some  of  our 
chimney-like  metropolitan  office-buildings  might  mean  a  far 
different  result. 

When  we  turn  to  the  action  of  the  fireproofing  protect- 
ing the  steel  we  find  the  results  of  the  fire  somewhat  more 
difficult  to  analyze.  In  each  of  the  three  buildings  a  differ- 
ent kind  of  fireproofing  material  was  used,  and  in  each  the 
intensity  and  progress  of  the  fire  itself  varied.  It  is  hardly 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS,  185 

fair,  therefore,  to  assume  from  the  appearance  of  the  ruins 
alone  any  special  excellence  for  any  one  kind  of  fireproofing 
as  compared  with  the  other.  There  is  no  very  good  reason 
to  doubt,  however,  that  the  heat  was  most  intense  in  the 
Home  store-building,  less  severe  in  the  Home  office-build- 
ing, and  least  trying  of  all  in  the  Methodist  Book  Building. 
The  damage  to  the  fireproofing  in  these  three  buildings 
ranks  in  severity  about  in  the  same  order.  Between  the 
Home  store  and  office  buildings  the  difference  in  the  inten- 
sity of  the  fire  was  the  least,  undoubtedly,  and  it  may  be  rea- 
sonably assumed  that  the  better  action  of  the  fireproofing  in 
the  office-building  was  due  to  some  extent  to  the  use  of  the 
porous  tile  and  the  end  construction  of  the  arches.  This 
rather  upholds  the  very  general  opinion  that  the  porous  tile 
and  the  end  construction  is  superior  to  hard  tile  and  side 
construction. 

A  particular  feature  to  be  remarked  is  that  no  particular 
part  of  the  fireproofing  seemed  to  resist  the  fire  better  than 
another;  the  column  tile,  the  floor-arches,  and  the  beam 
flange  covering  seeming  to  have  been  destroyed  about 
equally.  In  the  office-building  where  partitions  were  used, 
their  destruction  was  pretty  serious,  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected. Xo  very  great  stability  against  fire  and  streams  of 
water  can  be  expected  from  partitions  of  4-inch  tile,  and  the 
wonder  is  that  they  stood  as  well  as  they  did.  In  respect  to 
their  efficiency,  however,  there  does  not  seem  to  be  much 
choice  between  partitions  of  4-inch  tile  and  metal-lath  and 
wooden-stud  partitions  used  in  the  Methodist  Book  Build- 
ing, and  the  builder  who  pins  his  faith  to  either  to  resist  a 
severe  attack  of  fire  and  water  is  likely  to  be  disappointed. 

The  behavior  of  the  i6-foot-span  concrete  floor-arches 
in  the  Methodist  Book  Building  must,  we  believe,  be  con- 
ceded bv  everv  fair-minded  man  to  have  been  most  excel- 


1 86  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

lent  and  to  justify  the  faith  which  many  architects  and  en- 
gineers have  shown  in  concrete  floor  constructions.  It  is 
true  that  the  heat  to  which  they  were  exposed  was  not  as 
great  as  that  in  the  buildings  with  the  tile  construction,  but 
it  is  also  true  that  many  of  these  concrete  arches  were  in  the 
midst  of  a  very  severe  fire  for  a  considerable  time,  and  came 
through  it,  with  hardly  any  exception,  absolutely  unharmed. 
AYe  believe  that  the  Pittsburg  fire  adds  convincing  evidence 
to  that  already  accumulated  in  engineering  literature  that 
concrete  is  entitled  to  rank  as  a  material  of  the  highest  value 
in  fire-proof  construction. 

In  what  has  preceded  will  be  found  some  of  the  sugges- 
tions which  the  fire  at  Pittsburg  seems  to  offer  to  architects 
and  engineers,  and  doubtless  others  will  be  found  in  study- 
ing the  story  of  the  disaster.  To  such  experts  we  may  con- 
fidently entrust  the  evidence  given  for  a  fair  consideration, 
but  the  general  public  will  hardly  lay  so  much  stress  on  these 
finer  points,  and  will  want  an  unqualified  answer  to  the  ques- 
tion whether  the  Pittsburg  fire  did  or  did  not  prove  the  use- 
lessness  of  fire-proof  construction.  It  may  be  answered  at 
once  that  it  proved  the  value  of  such  construction,  if  for  no 
other  reason  than  that  these  fire-proof  buildings  prevented 
the  spread  of  fire  beyond  them.  It  is  true  that  the  business 
man  may  see  little  inducement  to  fire-proof  construction  if 
it  means  loss  on  the  fire-proof  building  and  safety  beyond 
it.  but  he  can  also  see  that  if  the  fronts  of  these  burned 
buildings  had  been  as  well  protected  as  their  rears  the  fire 
would  have  serious  difficulty  in  ever  entering  them.  Just 
here  is  the  thing  that  the  average  builder  has  been  prone  to 
overlook.  I  le  will  go  to  great  expense  to  make  his  building 
incombustible,  and  then,  for  reasons  of  economy,  or  to  dis- 
play his  goods,  or  to  gain  some  other  end  which  he  desires, 
he  will  stop  short  of  making  it  reasonably  inaccessible  to  fire. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  I  8/ 

The  three  fire-proof  buildings  at  Pittsburg  were  destroyed 
by  an  exposure  fire,  and  they  could  have  been  hardly  more 
open  to  the  access  of  such  a  fire  if  their  whole  fronts  had 
been  lacking. 

\\'e  are  not  overlooking  the  fact  that  buildings  must  be 
suitable  for  occupation  and  business  and,  therefore,  must 
have  doors  and  windows  and  stairways,  but  these  can  all  be 
had  and  the  openings  still  be  protected  in  such  a  manner  as 
not  to  afford  free  access  to  flames  and  heat.  For  example: 
there  was  no  structural  reason  why  the  windows  of  the 
Home  store  and  office  buildings  at  Pittsburg  should  not 
have  had  rolling  steel  shutters  ;  and  if  they  had,  is  there 
much  question  but  that  the  firemen  from  inside  these  build- 
ings could  have  saved  both  from  serious  damage?  It  is  need- 
less to  go  further  into  the  consideration  of  what  might  have 
been  done,  for  enough  has  been  suggested,  we  think,  to  show 
that  an}-  wholesale  condemnation  of  tire-proof  construction, 
when  we  consider  it  in  its  broad  meaning  of  protective  con- 
struction against  the  spread  of  flame,  is  not  warranted  by  the 
1)ittsburg  fire  and  its  results. 

hi  a  closing  word  attention  may  be  called  to  the  fact  that 
modern  fireproofing  systems  have  never  before  been  sub- 
jected to  so  severe  a  test  as  in  the  Pittsburg  fire,  nor  has  it 
ever  before  suffered  such  wholesale  destruction  bv  fire. 


1 88  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


CHAPTER  VI. 

COLUMNS. 

OF  the  three  elements  which  enter  into  the  construction 
of  great  office-buildings  of  the  skeleton  frame — foundations, 
columns,  and  floors — the  question  of  proper  column  ar- 
rangement and  column  construction  we  believe  to  be  the 
most  important.  Foundations  may  sink  or  settle  in  place, 
and  cause  derangement  in  the  levels  and  the  buildings  to 
lean  out  of  plumb;  the  floors  may  bend  or  break  and  arches 
may  fall;  but  if  the  columns  should  fail  there  is  danger  that 
the  entire  structure  will  collapse. 

ARRANGEMENT  OF  COLUMNS  ON  FLOOR-PLAN. — The  ar- 
rangement of  the  columns,  like  the  floor  beams  and  girders, 
should  be  such  that  the  material  will  be  used  in  the  most 
economical  manner,  and,  if  it  is  intended  that  the  building 
shall  be  divided  into  a  fixed  number  of  offices  with  a  certain 
width  to  each,  it  will  be  necessary  to  place  the  columns  at  the 
junction  of  these  offices  and  partitions,  spacing  the  beam:; 
and  girders  accordingly,  and  using  such  section  of  material 
as  will  be  justifiable  in  the  sense  of  economy.  To  reduce  the 
weight  of  the  load  of  the  superstructure  upon  the  party-line 
walls  it  often  becomes  necessary  to  place  the  second  row  of 
columns  closer  to  that  line,  avoiding  as  much  as  possible 
great  eccentric  loads  upon  the  foundations. 

The  sixty-two  columns  in  the  Central  Bank  Building  are 
arranged  in  such  a  manner  that  the  loads  upon  the  same  are 
almost  identical,  excepting  those  facing  the  front  walls  which 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  189 

support  the  masonry  walls.  This  system  causes  an  equal 
distribution  of  the  loads  upon  the  entire  foundation,  and  an 
equal  settlement  of  the  whole  building  is  assured. 

SKELETON  COLUMNS  SEPARATED  FROM  OUTSIDE  WALLS. 
—In  the  St.  Paul  Building  Mr.  Geo.  B.  Post  made  a  form  of 
construction  similar  to  that  used  in  the  Havemeyer  Build- 
ing, described  in  the  writer's  book  on  "  Skeleton  Construc- 
tion in  Buildings,"  with  this  difference,  that  the  Havemeyer 
Building  has  self-supporting  walls,  and  the  St.  Paul  Building 
walls  are  constructed  as  shown  by  the  illustration.  Fig.  8n. 
All  columns  are  made  in  two-story  lengths,  web-spliced 
about  two  feet  above  the  floor-beam  connection.  The  floor- 
girders  are  made  double,  one  piece  fastened  to  each  of  the 
opposite  sides  of  the  column  by  web-brackets  so  as  to  balance 
the  loads,  and  are  continued  beyond,  almost  to  the  face  of 
the  buttresses,  so  as  to  form  cantilevers  that  carry  the 
masonry  in  one-story  spandrels. 

Fxterior  plate  and  angle-gusset  knee-braces  are  riveted  to 
the  column  above  and  below  the  girder  in  the  thickness  of 
the  buttresses,  so  as  to  make  rigid  sway-bracing',  and  wall- 
girders  are  connected  to  the  web  of  the  cantilever,  a  wider 
base  being  provided  for  the  buttress  piers  by  the  insertion  of 
horizontal  plates  on  the  top  of  the  cantilevers  and  wall- 
beams,  and  stiffened  by  angle-brackets  at  the  corners.  All 
the  outer  wall  columns  are  located  entirely  within  the  interior 
face  of  brickwork,  and  thus  stand  out  freely  in  the  rooms, 
their  outer  flange  being  at  least  10  inches  from  the  outside 
face  of  masonrv.  Then  around  the  column  is  built  a  casing 
of  porous  terra-cotta,  which  makes  an  insulating  lire-protec- 
tion and  forms  two  air-spaces.  Being  separated  from  the 
walls,  this  terra-cotta  can  be  quickly  and  easily  removed  to 
permit  inspection  or  repairs. 

The  column  is  further  protected  by  a  >heet  of  asphalted 


1 90 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


felt,  forming  a  damp-proof  course  on  the  outside  next  the 
brickwork.  A  space  is  left  between  the  brickwork  and  as- 
phalt sheet,  which  is  finally  filled  in  solidly  with  grout. 


FIG.   86. 


The  special  features  Mr.  Post  claims  for  this  method  of 
construction  are  more  effectual  exclusion  of  moisture  and 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  19! 

prevention  of  corrosion,  superior  fi reproofing,  and  a  connec- 
tion of  the  floor-system  so  as  to  avoid  eccentric  loading  of 
columns. 

CAST-IRON  COLUMNS. — Cast-iron  columns  for  high- 
building  construction  still  have  their  adherents,  but  the 
writer  recommends  them  only  for  those  buildings  with  large 
bases  and  ten  stories  or  less  in  height;  and,  if  so  used,  extra- 
ordinary care  should  be  taken  in  their  manufacture,  in  the 
nature  of  the  joints,  and  in  the  construction. 

Of  the  several  forms  of  castings  used  the  following  illus- 
trations show  some  of  the  sections  (Figs.  87  and  88).  The 


Oil 

Fn;.  >;.  Fie;.  88. 

circular  and  square  columns  possess  more  merit  than  the 
other  shapes;  the  square  section  can  be  built  into  the  walls 
with  more  facility  than  the  circular,  the  latter  section  being 
used  principally  for  the  interior  of  the  building.  The  forms 
shown  by  Fig.  88  are  identical,  with  the  exception  that  the 
web  of  one  has  open  spaces  in  various  points  in  the  height. 
These  two  sections  admit  of  measuring  and  inspecting  the 
thickness  of  the  castings  at  all  points;  but  the  irregular  rates 
of  cooling  caused  by  the  open  spaces  are  without  doubt  preju- 
dicial, and  it  is  preferable  to  have  the  webs  continuous.  \\  e 
have  seen  such  columns  crack  by  being  simply  unloaded  from 
the  hauling  trucks. 

The  vertical  sections  of  all  these  cast-iron  columns  are 
joined  together  by  means  of  flanges,  and  the  beams  to  them 
by  lugs,  resting  upon  brackets,  as  shown  by  the  illustration. 
Fig.  8().  The  ends  of  the  sections  must  be  carefully  machine- 
faced,  at  true  right  angles  to  the  axis  of  the  column.  Fven 


192 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


if  this  is  carefully  done,  in  setting  the  work  at  the  building 
it  very  frequently  happens  that  shimming  has  to  he  exten- 
sively practised,  and  the  full  hearing  of  the  column  becomes 
questionable:  and  too  often,  when  the  column  receives  its  full 
load,  the  Manges  are  snapped  from  the  shaft,  and  a  bolted 
cast-iron  flange-joint  for  a  column  is  thus  made  worse  by 
such  methods.  The  number  and  size  of  bolts  at  each  joint 
vary  from  three-fourths  to  one  inch,  placed  about  six  inches 


tj 


0 


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+J 


apart.  To  add  additional  strength  to  these  llanges  small 
brackets  are  cast  with  the  column  at  various  points,  where 
they  do  not  interfere  with  the  bolting. 

The  ends  of  the  beams  and  girders  are  commonly  sup- 
ported upon  the  column  by  brackets  and  lugs,  as  shown. 

If  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  cast-iron  columns  in  these 
structures,  \ve  recommend  omitting  lugs  and  joining  the 
beams  to  the  columns  by  drilling  holes  through  the  shaft, 
using  short,  heavy  bolts,  and.  in  the  case  of  opposite  beams, 
long  bolts  to  reach  through. 

STEEL  COLUMNS. — Columns  made  of  rolled-iron  shapes 
have,  on  account  of  expense  in  manufacture,  gone  out  of  use, 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


193 


and  steel  columns  have  taken  their  place,  the  commercial 
shapes  of  which  are  shown  in  the  following  plate.  Fig. 
90  is  a  section  made  of  four  angles  and  a  plate  with  two  lines 
of  riveting,  the  lower  section  of  the  same  figure  having  an 
additional  area  added  to  it  by  the  two  plates,  which  are  riv- 
eted to  each  of  the  angles  by  two  lines  of  riveting.  This  sec- 


Oil 

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01 


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0 

0 

(.. 

1 

o 

o 

o 

0 

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c 

c 

o 

o 

0 

o               o 

_JL_ 

TT 

JL 

FIG.  90. 


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;.  93. 


tion,  without  the  outside  plates,  is  no  doubt  the  simplest  and 
least  expensive  to  use. 

Then  we  have  another  inexpensive  column  in  that  shown 
by  the  lower  section  of  Fig.  gi.  a  box  column  made  of  chan- 
nels and  two  cover-plates  with  four  lines  of  riveting.  The 
upper  section  of  the  same  figure  is  a  box  column,  but  com- 
posed of  plates  and  angles  requiring  eight  lines  of  riveting. 


194  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

These  sections  are  often  constructed  as  shown  in  Fig.  92, 
using  latticing. 

Another  column  which  has  been  used  extensively 
throughout  the  country  is  that  shown  by  Fig.  93.  the  upper 
section  having  two  lines  of  riveting  and  the  lower  six  lines. 
The  Z-bar  column,  so  called  from  its  shape,  has  been  more 
extensively  used  in  the  West,  especially  in  the  tall  buildings 
erected  in  Chicago.  The  usual  connection  of  one  column  to 
another,  too  often  adopted  in  the  West,  is  not  recommended 
by  the  writer,  as  beams  and  girders  resting  upon  plates,  with 
no  other  connection  except  bolts  or  rivets  through  the 
rlanges,  are  not,  in  his  opinion,  suitable  for  high  or  even  low 
buildings. 

In  the  lower  stories  of  tall  buildings,  where  the  loads  are 
exceedingly  great,  these  Z-bar  column  sections  can  be  ma- 
terially increased  by  the  addition  of  cover-plates,  as  shown. 

t"p  to  the  present  the  above  forms  of  column  sections 
have  been  more  extensively  used  than  any  other;  but  a  few 
patented  shapes  have  come  into  existence  since  1890,  one  of 
which  is  the  "  Larimer  Column,"  made  by  bending  two  I 
beams  at  right  angles  in  the  middle  of  the  web  and  riveting 
them  together:  another  is  the  "  Clray  Column."  made  up  of 
angle-bars,  as  shown  by  the  illustrations,  riveted  together  in 
pairs,  and  braced  about  every  two  feet  in  length  by  tie-plates, 
usually  eight  or  nine  inches  wide,  riveted  to  the  angles  as 
shown.  The  latter  column  has  special  advantages  which  the 
others  have  not:  the  material  is  so  disposed  as  to  be  as  far 
as  possible  from  the  neutral  axis  of  the  cross-section:  then, 
again,  angle  shapes  are  quite  common,  and  extensively  used 
and  manufactured. 

FtKKPRooFixr,  COLTMXS. — The  incipient  stages  of  a 
fire,  where  there  is  so  little  to  burn  in  a  large  building,  would 
probably  do  little  damage  to  the  construction:  but  in  many 


HIGH  OU<lCE-RUIi,DING!>. 


'95 


SQUARE  COLUMNS. 


PLAN  OF    COLUMN    SHOWING    METHOD   OF    INCREASING 
SECTIONAL    AREA. 


30-INCH    COLUMN. 

FIG.  94 — Tut;  GRAY   COLTMN. 


196  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


BRACKET  CONNECTIONS. 


CONNECTION   FOR 
12-INCH  BEAM. 


CONNECTION   FOR 
15-INCH  BEAM. 


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CONNECTION   FOR   PLATE 
GIRDERS  — COLUMN   SPLICE. 


ECCENTRIC   CONNECTION 
FOR    12-INCH    REAM. 


FIG.  95. — THK  GRAY  COLUMN. 


HIGH    LJ-'FICE-BI'ILDINGS.  1 97 

cases  great  heat  can  be  generated  in  a  very  short  time  with 
the  contents  of  a  room,  and  when  a  flood  of  cold  water 
reaches  the  metal  in  the  column  it  is  not  difficult  to  realize 
the  result. 

All  the  column  sections  shown  in  the  illustrations  can  he 
made  practically  fire-proof  in  various  ways.  The  Xew  York 
law  provides  for  fireproofing  a  column  where  it  supports  a 
solid  masonry  pier  by  covering  the  supporting  shaft  with  an 
outer  shell  and  filling'  in  the  open  space  between  with  a  non- 
combustible  material. 

The  covering  of  columns  is  required  by  the  Chicago 
law  to  be  as  follows  :  "  if  of  brick,  not  less  than  8  inches 
thick  ;  if  of  hollow  tile,  one  covering  at  least  _'.]  inches 
thick.  If  of  fire-proof  covering,  it  shall  be  at  least  2 
inches  thick.  Whether  hollow  tile  or  porous  terra-cotta  is 
used,  the  courses  shall  be  so  anchored  and  bonded  together 
as  to  form  an  independent  and  stable  structure." 

"  In  all  cases  there  shall  be  on  the  outside  of  the  tiles  a 
covering  of  plastering  with  Portland  cement,  or  of  other 
mortar  of  equal  hardness  and  efficiency  when  set. " 

"  If  plastering  on  metallic  laths  be  used  as  fireproofing 
for  columns,  it  shall  be  in  two  layers,  of  which  the  first  shall 
be  applied  in  such  a  manner  that  the  mortar  will  cover  the 
entire  external  surface  of  the  column,  while  the  space  be- 
tween the  two  layers  shall  not  be  less  than  I  inch  thick." 

'  The  metallic  lath  shall  in  each  case  be  fastened  to  me- 
tallic furring,  and  the  plastering  upon  the  same  shall  be  made 
with  cement.  Protection  for  the  lower  five  feet  shall  be  re- 
quired in  this  case  the  same  as  where  porous  terra-cotta  or 
hollow-tile  covering  is  used." 

The  Xew  York  law  further  states  that  "  where  columns 
arc  used  to  support  iron  or  steel  girders  carrying  curtain- 
walls,  the  said  columns  shall  be  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron. 


IQ5  THE    PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

or  rolled  steel,  and  on  their  exposed  outer  and  inner  surfaces 
shall  be  constructed  to  resist  lire  by  having  a  casing  of  brick- 
work not  less  than  4  inches  in  thickness  and  bonded  into  the 
brickwork  of  the  curtain-walls." 

\Ye  believe  that  the  columns  shown  in  the  figure,  where  it 
is  separated  from  the  outside  wall,  is  the  most  effective;  but 
in  many  cases  we  have  used  a  four-inch  and.  eight-inch  brick 
covering,  setting  the  work  with  Portland  cement,  and  in 
many  cases  porous  terra-cotta  tile  with  hollow  spaces,  also 
set  in  Portland  cement. 

The  use  of  brick  is  probably  the  cheapest  method,  as  it 
can  be  accomplished  during  the  building  of  the  walls  of  the 
structure. 

The  principal  requirement  governing  such  fireproofing 
is  that  the  material  shall  be  non-heat-conducting. 

BEARING  STRENGTH  OF  COLUMNS  ACCORDING  TO  THE 
NEW  YORK  BUILDING  LAW. — Section  483.  Every  column, 
post,  or  other  vertical  support  shall  be  of  sufficient  strength 
to  bear  safely  the  weight  of  the  portion  of  each  and  every 
floor  depending  upon  it  for  support,  in  addition  to  the 
weight  which  the  floors  support.  The  dimensions  of  each 
piece  or  combination  of  materials  required  shall  be  ascer- 
tained by  computation,  according  to  the  rules  given  in  Has- 
weli's  "  Mechanic's  and  Engineer's  Pocketbook."  except  as 
may  otherwise  be  provided  for  in  this  title. 

CRUSHING  \YKIGIIT  OF  METAL  IN  COLUMNS — XEW 
YORK  BUILDING  LAW. — The  strength  of  all  columns  and 
posts  shall  be  computed  according  to  Gordon's  formuke.  and 
the  crushing  weight  in  pounds  per  square  inch  of  section 
shall  be  taken  as  coefficients  in  said  formula-,  namely,  cast 
iron.  80.000;  wrought  or  rolled  iron.  40,000;  rolled  steel, 
48,000. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  «99 

COLUMNS  IN  FIRE-PROOF  BUILDINGS — NEW  YORK 
BUILDING  LAW. — Section  484.  All  cast-iron,  wrought-iron, 

or  rolled-steel  columns  shall  be  made  true  and  smooth  at 
both  ends,  and  shall  rest  on  iron  or  steel  bed-plates  and  have 
iron  or  steel  cap-plates,  which  shall  also  be  made  true. 

Section  4^5.  In  all  building's  hereafter  erected  or 
altered,  where  any  iron  or  steel  column  or  columns  are  used 
to  support  a  wall  or  part  thereof,  whether  the  same  be  an  ex- 
terior or  interior  wall,  excepting  a  wall  fronting  on  a  street, 
and  columns  located  below  the  level  of  the  sidewalk  which 
are  used  to  support  exterior  walls  or  arches  over  vaults,  the 
said  columns  shall  be  either  constructed  double,  that  is,  an 
outer  and  inner  column,  the  inner  columns  alone  to  be  of 
sufficient  strength  to  sustain  safely  the  weight  to  be  im- 
posed thereon,  or  such  other  iron  or  steel  columns  of  suf- 
cient  strength  and  so  constructed  as  to  secure  resistance  to 
fire  may  be  used,  as  may  be  approved  by  the  superintendent 
of  buildings. 

Iron  posts  in  front  of  party-walls  shall  be  filled  up  solid 
with  masonry,  and  made  perfectly  tight  between  the  posts 
and  walls  to  prevent  effectually  the  passage  of  smoke  or  tire. 

Cast-iron  posts  or  columns  which  are  to  be  used  for  the 
support  of  wooden  or  iron  girders  or  brick  walls,  not  cast 
with  one  open  side  or  back  before  being  set  in  place,  shall 
have  a  three-eighths  of  an  inch  hole  drilled  in  the  shaft  of 
each  post  or  column  by  the  manufacturer  or  contractor  fur- 
nishing the  same,  to  exhibit  the  thickness  of  the  castings;  and 
any  other  similar-eyed  hole  or  holes  which  the  superinten- 
dent of  buildings,  or  his  duly  authorized  representative,  may 
require  shall  be  drilled  in  the  said  posts  or  columns  by  the 
said  manufacturer  or  contractor  at  his  own  expense. 

Iron  posts  or  columns  cast  with  one  or  more  sides  and 
backs  shall  have  solid  iron  plates  on  top  of  each  to  prevent 


2OO  THE    PLANNING    Ai\'D    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

the  passage  of  smoke  or  fire  through  them  from  one  story 
to  another,  excepting  where  pierced  for  the  passage  of  pipes. 
No  cast-iron  post  or  column  shall  be  used  in  any  building  of 
a  less  average  thickness  of  shaft  than  three  quarters  of  an 
inch,  nor  shall  it  have  an  unsupported  length  of  more  than 
twenty  times  its  least  lateral  dimensions  or  diameter. 

No  wrought-iron  or  rolled-steel  column  shall  have  an 
unsupported  length  of  more  than  thirty  times  its  least  lateral 
dimension  or  diameter,  nor  shall  its  metal  be  less  than  one 
fourth  of  an  inch  in  thickness. 

All  cast-iron,  wrought-iron,  and  steel  columns  shall  have 
their  bearings  faced  smooth  and  at  right  angles  to  the  axis 
of  the  column;  and  when  one  column  rests  upon  another 
column  they  shall  be  securely  bolted  together. 

COLUMNS  FOR  CURTAIN-WALLS. — Where  columns  are 
used  to  support  iron  or  steel  girders  carrying  curtain-walls, 
the  said  columns  shall  be  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron.  or 
rolled  steel,  and  on  their  exposed  outer  and  inner  surfaces 
be  constructed  to  resist  fire  by  having  a  casing  of  brickwork 
not  less  than  four  inches  in  thickness  and  bonded  into  the 
brickwork  of  the  curtain-walls,  or  the  inside  surfaces  of  the 
said  columns  may  be  covered  with  an  outer  shell  of  iron  hav- 
ing an  air-space  between:  and  the  exposed  sides  of  the  iron 
or  steel  girders  shall  be  similarly  covered  in  and  tied  and 
bonded. 

STRENGTH  OF  COLUMNS — I'UFFALO  I'UILDINI;  LAW. — 
(Section  146.) 

Cast-iron  Columns. — Cast  iron  subjected  to  crushing 
strain  only,  as  in  bearing  plate,  may  be  loaded  to  the  ex- 
tent of  15.000  pounds  per  square  inch.  Compression  strain 
on  cast  iron  shall  not  exceed  13,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 
Tensile  strength  on  cast  iron  shall  not  exceed  3000  pounds 
per  square  inch. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  2OI 

Cast-iron  Pillar  FormuUc. 


L*    \ 

Round  columns,      5=   14,000^  ~  (  i  -  —  y. 

x         600  1)''  ' 

/  I*     \ 

Square  columns,      5  =   14,000^  -=-  I  I  -\  -----------  -I. 

*  ' 


S  —  safe  load  in  pounds. 

L  =  length  of  column  inches. 

D  =  diameter'of  column  in  inches. 

Round  columns,  A  =  sectional  area  of  column  in  inches. 

Square  columns,  A  =  side  or  least  horizontal  of  any  other 
column. 

Riveted  Columns  —  Wrought  Iron.  —  For  riveted  or  other 
forms  of  wrought-iron  columns  more  than  gor  in  length, 

.S'  =   10,600  —  30    . 
r 

For  riveted  or  other  forms  of  wrought-iron  columns  less 
than  9Or  in  length, 

S  =        8000  —  30  -  . 

Steel.  —  For  riveted  or  other  forms  of  steel  columns  more 
than  90^  in  length, 

5  =   17,  100  —  $/•—. 

For  riveted  or  other  forms  of  steel  columns  less  than  gor 
in  length, 

5=i2,  ooo  —  ;  7  '- 
J/  r 


202  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

..S"  =  safe  load  in  pounds  per  square  inch. 
L  =  length  of  column  in  inches. 
/•  =  least  radius  of  gyration  of  columns  in  inches. 


STKLNGTH    OF    COLUMNS  -  CHICAGO    BUILDING    LAW. 

Cast-iron  Columns.  —  \Yhen  cast  iron  is  subjected  to  crush- 
ing stress  only,  as  in  plates,  it  may  be  loaded  to  the  extent  of 
15,000  pounds  per  square  inch. 

Cast-iron   Pit/ar  l:ormulie. 
For  round  columns, 


L  =  length  of  column  in  inches. 
I)  =  diameter  of  column  in  inches. 
A  =  sectional  area  in  square  inches. 


/,' 
For  rectangular  columns,  i"  =   io,oooy/  -^-  1  i  - 


I)  =  the  side  of  the  square  or  least  horizontal  dimension 
•of  other  rectangular  columns. 

Riveted  Columns. — For  riveted  or  other  forms  of  wrought- 
jron  columns, 

(       I* 

S  —    12,  OOOA   -T-   '  •-  j . 

V36,ooor7/ 
i'^^r  riveted  or  other  steel  columns  less  than  dor  in  lenth, 


(C>oL\ 

—    ( } . 

\      I-     ' 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  -OJ 

For  riveted  and  other  steel  columns  more  than  6or  in 
length, 

.S'  =    i  3,500.  /. 

A  —  sectional  area  of  column  in  square  inches. 

/,  =  length  of  column  in  inches. 

r  --  least  radius  of  gyration  of  columns  in  inches. 

RKMARKS  ui-ox  TIIK  DIFKKRKXT  FoRMn..-K  AS  USKD 
]•'<>!<  Coi.r.Mxs. — Steel  columns  fail  either  by  deflecting 
bodily  out  of  a  straight  line,  or  by  the  buckling  up  of  the 
metal  between  rivets  or  other  points  of  support.  To  guard 
against  these  two  results  various  formuhe  have  been  contrived, 
such  as  those  quoted  above  from  the  different  building  laws, 
and  other  formula,-  have  been  derived  from  actual  tests. 

The  tests  of  full-size  wrought-iron  columns  on  which  the 
value  of  empirical  coefficients  in  Gordon's  formula  are  based 
are  discussed  in  "  The  Elasticity  and  Resistance  of  Materials," 
by  Mr.  William  II.  Burr.  The  results  of  those  tests  yield 
the  following  formuhe  for  ultimate  resistance: 

Let/"—  ultimate  resistance  in  pounds  per  square  inch; 
/  -=  length  of  column  in  inches  , 

r  --  radius  of  gyration  of  column  section  in  inches,  in 
which  direction    the  failure  takes  place. 

Then  /'=         _4°-000__ 


i  4- 

:O.OOO 


If  a  factor  of  safety  of  four  be  employed,  as  is  usual  for 
\vrought-iron  columns  in  building  construction,  and  if  /'  rep- 
resent the  allowed  working  stress  per  square  inch,  then 


1O.OOO 
I 


2O4  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

The  preceding  formula  should  be  used  only  within  the 
limits  of  /  —  50^  and  /  =  i^or.  For  any  value  of  /  less  than 
5Or  the  values  of  P  found  at  that  limit  should  constantly  be 
used,  and  no  columns  with  /greater  than  130?"  should  ever  be 
permitted. 

It  is  to  be  observed  that  /  and  r  must  be  taken  in  the 
same  unit,  it  being  usual  to  take  them  in  inches. 

Mr.  Burr  also  states  that  the  straight-line  formula  may  be 
used  as  the  one  above. 

The  notation  remaining  the  same  as  before, 


/=  44.000  —   140-. 


If  the  working  stress  be  taken  at  one  fourth  the  ultimate 
as  before,  then 

P  —        —   i  1,000  —  35-. 

The  ultimate  resistance  or  the  working  stress  of  the 
column  will  be  found  by  multiplying  the  area  of  its  cross- 
section  in  square  inches  by  the  preceding  value  of  f  or  P 
respectively. 

The  very  simple  form  of  straight- line  formula  makes  it 
easier  to  use  than  Gordon's,  and  it  also  represents  the  results 
of  tests  a  little  more  accurately. 

The  following  table,  by  Mr.  Burr,  gives  the  values  of  P, 
the  working  pressure  per  square  inch,  for  both  the  straight- 
line  and  (iordon  formula,  with  the  values  of  —  varying  from 

r 

50  to  98. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  2O$ 

I  10,000 

P  =  1 1, ooo  —35  —  .  /   =  -- 

r  I         /• 

I      _l         

I3,OOO   r- 

Pounds.  Founds. 

r 

50     .  9-250  9>23< 

54 9-110  9^44 

58 8,970  8,992 

62 8,830  8,865 

66 8,690  8,732 

70 8,550  8,596 

74 8.410  8,457 

78 8,270  8,314 

82 8, 130  8, 169 

86 7,990  8,022 

9° 7,850  7,874 

94 7'/!0  7>725 

98 7o7°  7,575 

The  fact   that  columns  of  different  forms  of  cross-section, 

but  with   the  same  value  of  -,    will  give   somewhat  different 

r 

values  of  ultimate  resistance  per  square  inch,  should  not  be 
forgotten,  although  that  difference  in  the  cases  of  good  de- 
signing is  never  great. 

COLUMN  JOINTS. — The  stability  of  the  skeleton  frame 
depends  upon  the  proper  designing  of  all  its  structural  parts, 
especially  the  column  joints.  When  the  structure  covers  an 
extensive  ground-area  and  wind-braces  are  not  needed,  we 
recommend  the  column  joints  shown  by  the  detail,  Fig.  96. 
The  connection  can  be  applied  to  all  the  steel  sections  herein 
shown. 

Wixn-BKAClNC,. — A  building  whose  height  does  not  ex- 
ceed three  times  its  base  and  which  has  a  well-constructed 
frame  scarcely  needs  a  special  system  of  wind-bracing  to  make 


2OO 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


it  secure.      The  column  should  be  in  lengths  of  two  or  more 
stories,  and  thoroughly  spliced   at  the  joints  with  plates  and 


Fi<;.  c/>.— DKTAII.  OF  COLUMN  JOINT. 

resets   sufficient  to  make  the  section    nearly  continuous  .is  far 
as  the  transverse  bending  is  concerned. 

BKAMS  AND  GIKDKKS. — The  application  of  steel   beams 
and  girders  to  high  buildings  is  similar  in  every  respect  to 


///(;//   OFF1CE-B  U1LDINGS. 

CONNECTIONS  FOR  BEAMS  OF  DIFFERENT 
SIZES. 


207 


15'  I  w. 

•STp  CONN^ 

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2 

—  ^ 

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FIG.  97.  —  CON  SKI  "i'ii 


KOK    HKAMS  or   DIFFERENT  SIXES. 


2O8  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

CONNECTIONS  FOR  BEAMS  OF  DIFFERENT 
SIZES. 


IE' I   WITH   7"  I 
IZ'STD  CONN.  SPL.FACE 


12"!  WITH  g- 1 

12'STO  CONN.  SPL.FACE. 


|O"I    WITH    Q" 

8' STD  CONN. 


8"  ST  0  CONN. 


9"  I    WITH     8"   1 
9"  STD  CONN. 


8"  STO  CONN. 


9"!   WITH  7" 
7'STD  CONN. 


7"ST'D  CONN. 


6"! 


8"i  WITH 

7"  ST'D  CONN. 


7'STD  CONN. 


J'STD  CCNN 


7-  STP  CONN. 


fa' STD   CONN. 


6'.6'Lf  5' LONG. 


•It  Zi   Z."-6"ST'D  CONN. 


7"!  W.TH  6"! 

6-1 V  L-  4%." LONG. 


it 


<*» 


6' STD  CONN. 


Fit 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  2OQ 

all  other  methods  of  si  eel  construction.  The  various  rolling- 
mills  have  their  handbooks  from  which  the  strength  of  any 
beam  section  from  3-  to  ^4-inch  is  given.  I  Seams  24.  _>o,  iS, 
and  15  inches  in  depth  are  generally  used  as  girders,  while 
those  of  u.  10,  o,.  and  <S  niches  are  used  as  floor-beams,  and 
>maller  sections  are  used  for  framing  well-holes,  flues,  and 
elevator-enclosures. 

\\  here  rolled  I  beams  arc  not  sufficiently  strong  for  car- 
rying the  loads,  riveted  girders  with  single  webs  are  em- 
ployed. The  writer  has  treated  the  subject  of  beams  in  his 
work  on  "  Skeleton  Constructed  Building's."  ;:  and  that  of 
riveted  girders  in  "Compound  Riveted  (iirders"  for 
buildings,  ar.d  refers  the  reader  to  those  books. 

r>K.\M  COXNKCTIOXS. — To  get  the  full  strength  of  the 
beams,  there  are  needed  angle-knees  riveted  or  bolted  to  the 
ends  with  sufficient  rivets  or  bolts.  The  illustrations  Figs. 
<)7  and  <)8  show  standard  connections  as  ordinarily  used  in 
building  work. 


Published  by   |"hn  Wiley  <S:  Sons,  54  East  Tenth  Street. 


210  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


CHAPTER   VII. 
FOUNDATIONS. 

IT  seems  unnecessary  to  treat  upon  foundations  when 
there  are  so  many  admirable  books  written  upon  the  sub- 
lect.  Nevertheless  our  work  is  not  complete  without  de- 
scribing in  general  the  methods  adopted  for  the  support  of 
high  buildings. 

In  designing  the  foundations  of  walls  and  piers  when  they 
rest  upon  a  yielding  stratum,  proper  provision  must  be  made 
for  the  uniform  distribution  of  the  weight,  and  to  form  such 
a  solid  base  for  this  superstructure  that  no  movement  shall 
take  place  after  its  erection.  Hut  all  structures  will  settle  to 
a  certain  extent,  and  with  few  exceptions  all  soils  will  become 
compressed  under  the  weight  of  almost  any  building. 

The  main  object,  therefore,  is  to  proportion  the  different 
loads  so  that  the  bearing  will  be  equal  and  a  uniform  settle- 
ment of  the  completed  structure  be  insured. 

Forxn. vno.xs  ri'ox  FIRM  AND  COMPRESSIBLE  SOILS. — 
The  condition  of  the  soil  upon  which  the  building  is  intended 
to  stand  determines  at  once  the  nature  of  the  foundation 
work.  L'pon  tirm  soils,  such  as  rock,  clay,  gravel,  and  sand, 
concrete  is  generallv  employed.  I  pon  compressible  soils, 
such  as  silt.  mud.  soft  earth,  and  quicksand,  piles,  steel  beam- 
tilled  with  concrete,  hydraulic  and  pneumatic  caissons  are 
used. 

FOUNDATIONS  ri'ox  ROCK. — To  prepare  a  rock  bed  for  a 
foundation,  cut  away  the  lower  or  decayed  portions,  ami 
dress  it  to  a  plane  surface,  as  nearly  perpendicular  to  the  di- 


///(///    OFFICE-HL'ILDINGS.  -II 

rection  of  the  pressure  as  is  practicable.  If  there  are  any 
fissures,  they  should  be  filled  with  concrete.  If  necessary  to 
l;e  partly  on  rocks  and  partly  on  soil,  the  footings  on  soil 
should  be  made  very  wide,  so  that  the  settlement  will  be  re- 
duced to  a  minimum.  Those  on  rock  will  not  settle,  conse- 
quently the  weight  per  square  foot  allowed  upon  the  soil 
should  be  extremely  low.  If  the  quantity  of  the  rock  is  not 
great  it  should  be  taken  out,  as  a  mixed  foundation-bed  sel- 
dom proves  satisfactory. 

FOUNDATIONS  UPON  CLAY. —  Foundations  up;>n  clay 
should  be  laid  at  such  depths  as  to  be  unaffected  by  the 
weather;  since  clay  at  considerable  depths  will  gain  and  lose 
water  as  the  seasons  change.  When  coarse  sand  or  gravel 
is  mixed  with  the  clay,  its  supporting  power  is  greatly  in- 
creased, being  greater  in  proportion  as  the  quantity  of  these 
materials  is  greater.  \Vhen  they  are  present  to  such  an  ex- 
tent that  the  clay  is  sufficient  to  bind  them  together,  the  com- 
bination will  bear  as  heavy  a  load  as  the  softer  rocks. 

FOUNDATIONS  UPON  GUAVKL  AND  SAND. — Sandy  soils 
vary  from  coarse  gravel  to  fine  sand,  and  when  these  are 
mixed  they  make  one  of  the  best  and  firmest  of  foundations, 
it  is  not  affected  by  water  if  confined  laterally,  so  that  the 
sand  and  gravel  cannot  wash  out.  This  material  makes  an 
excellent  foundation-bed  and  is  practically  incompressible 
when  under  high  buildings. 

FOUNDATIONS  IN  SILT.  MUD.  SOFT  KAKTII.  AND  (Juiri<- 
SAND. — Xo  foundation  should  start  upon  made  land,  silt, 
mud.  or  quicksand.  Such  material  should  always  be  pene- 
trated to  the  firm  soil  beneath,  and  when  made  land  overlies 
•i  firm  earth  the  footings  of  the  foundations  should  be  carried 
to  the  natural  soil. 

HKAKINI;  POWKR  OF  SOILS.  —  IVobablv  the  easiest 
method  of  determining  the  power  of  the  foundation-bed  i--  l>v 


212  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

means  of  the  square  platform  with  four  legs  about  six  inches 
square;  the  load  being  put  on  gradually  and  frequent  levels 
taken.  One  fifth  to  one  half  of  the  load  required  to  produce 
settlement  is  generally  adopted  for  the  safe  load. 

\Ye  quote  the  following  table  compiled  by  Ira  O.  Baker, 
C.E.,  for  his  "  Treatise  on  Masonry  Construction  ": 

TAHI.E  OK  THE   HEARING  POWER  OK  SOILS. 


Bearing  Power! 

in  'Tons  per     i 
Square  Foot.   I 
Kind  of  Materials. 


Rock,  hard 25  30 

soft 5  10 

Clay  on  thick   beds,  always  dry 4  6 

' '         moderately  dry 2  4 

soft i  2 

Gravel  and  coarse  sand,  well  cemented S  10 

Sand,  compact  and  well  cemented 4  (> 

"       clean,   dry 2  4 

Quicksand,  alluvial  soils,  etc 0.5  i 


The  Xew  York  Building  Law  requires  that  "  (iood  solid 
natural  earth  shall  be  deemed  to  safely  sustain  a  load  of  4 
tons  to  the  superficial  foot,  or  as  otherwise  determined  by  the 
Superintendent  of  Buildings,  and  the  width  of  footing  courses 
shall  be  at  least  sufficient  to  meet  this  requirement." 

The  Chicago  Building  Law  requires  that  "  If  the  soil  is  a 
layer  of  pure  clay  at  least  15  feet  thick  without  admixture  of 
foreign  substance,  excepting  gravel,  it  shall  not  be  loaded 
more  than  at  the  rate  of  3500  pounds  per  square  foot."  "  If 
the  soil  is  a  mixture  of  clay  and  sand  it  shall  not  be  loaded 
more  than  at  the  rate  of  3000  pounds."  "  If  the  soil  is  a 
layer  of  dry  sand  15  feet  or  more  in  thickness  and  without 
admixture  of  clav,  loam,  or  other  foreign  substance,  it  shall 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  J  I  3 

not    he   loaded    more   than   at    the   rate   of  4000   pounds   per 
square  foot." 

ForXDATIOXS    OF   T1IK    C~FXTRAL    B>AXK    Bl'IUMXC. The 

foundations  of  the  Central    Bank    Building-  rest   upon  (°;ood, 
clean,  sharp  sand  and  have  a  total  pressure  of  dead  and  partly 


— SECTION   OK   FofNDATlox,    CKNTRAI.    HANK    Hni.niM,. 


assumed  load  of  4  tons  per  square  foot,  as  called  for  l>y  the 
Xe\v  \'ork  Building  Law.  The  partly  assumed  load  refers 
to  that  portion  of  the  weight  relating  to  the  li\'c  load  upon 
the  floors,  as  mentioned  in  the  chapter  on  Floor  Construc- 
tion. It  is  an  unknown  quantity  which  seldom  ever  reaches 
the  foundations  within  live  per  cent  of  its  entirety. 

The   Central    Bank    Buildin<r   six    months    after   erection 


214  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

shows,  by  accurate  levels,  no  settlement  whatever,  except  on 
the  Pearl  Street  rear,  where  less  than  1-16  of  an  inch  is  per- 
ceptible. The  detail  drawing,  Fig.  99,  shows  a  section 
through  the  party  or  adjoining  wall  and  one  interior  column- 
base.  To  prevent  any  unequal  pressure  on  the  adjoining 
property,  cantilevers  were  used;  the  centre  of  pressure  being 
in  the  centre  of  the  concrete  bed  below,  the  same  as  if  it  had 
been  an  interior  isolated  pier. 

FOUNDATION  OF  LORD'S  COURT  BUILDING  UPON  PILES.— 
The  cheapest  and  generally  the  best  foundation-bed  upon  con- 
stantly saturated  compressible  soil  is  obtained  by  driving  piles. 
For  buildings  wooden  piles  are  used,  and  are  driven  generally 
to  hard  soil.  Fig.  100  shows  a  section  of  the  foundation  as 
used  in  Lord's  Court  Building.  The  specification  require- 
ment was  as  follows:  "  The  piles  used  shall  be  of  good  qual- 
ity Nova  Scotia  spruce  or  other  timber  equally  as  good  for 
the  purpose.  They  must  be  not  less  than  7  inches  in  diameter 
at  the  smaller  end  and  not  less  than  10  inches  nor  more  than 
14  inches  in  diameter  at  the  butt  when  sawn  off;  and  must 
be  perfectly  straight  and  be  trimmed  close,  and  have  the  bark 
stripped  off  before  they  are  driven.  The  piles  must  be  driven 
into  hard  bottom  until  they  do  not  move  more  than  one  half 
inch  under  the  blow  of  a  hammer  weighing  two  thousand 
pounds,  falling  twenty-five  feet  at  the  last  blow.  They  must 
be  driven  vertically  and  at  the  distances  apart  transversely 
and  longitudinally  as  required  by  the  plans  and  directions 
of  the  superintendent  of  the  building.  They  must  be  cut  off 
square  at  the  butt  and  well  sharpened  at  the  point."  These 
piles  were  driven  2  ft.  to  2  ft.  6  in.  centres. 

THE  XKW  YORK  BUILDING  LAW  REQUIREMENT  FOR 
DRIVING  PILES. —  "Piles  intended  for  a  wall,  pier,  or  post 
to  rest  upon  shall  not  be  less  than  5  inches  in  diameter  at  the 
smaller  end,  and  shall  be  spaced  not  more  than  30  inches  on 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


215 


centres,  or  nearer  if  required  by  the  Superintendent  of  Build- 
ings, and  they  shall  be  driven  to  a  solid  bearing."  "  No  piles 
shall  be  weighted  with  a  load  exceeding  40,000  pounds.  The 


FH;.  TOO.— SKCTION   OF  FOUNDATION,    LORD'S   Corur    Hi  II.IUM;. 

tops  of  all  piles  shall  be  cut  off  below  lowest  water-line. 
When  required,  concrete  shall  be  rammed  down  in  the  inter- 
spaces between  the  head:'  of  the  piles  to  a  depth  and  thick- 


2l6  THE   PLANNING    A.\'D    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

ness  of  not  less  than  12  inches,  and  for  one  foot  in  width  out- 
side of  the  piles." 

FORMULA  FOR  DETERMINING  THE  WORKING  LOAD  ON 
PILES. — The  following  formula  has  been  iaken  from  the 
Engineering  Xews,  and  is  considered  to  be  reliable.  It  is 
claimed  for  the  formula  that  it  sets  definite  limit,  high  enough 
for  all  economic  requirements,  up  to  which  there  is  no  record 
of  ordinary  pile  failures. 

•7  <-   »/; 

Safe  load  in  pounds  — 


in  which    71 '  =  weight  of   hammer   in   pounds;    h  ~  its    fall    in 
feet:    .v  =  average  set  under  last  blows  in  inches. 

THE  BEARING   POWER  OK    PILES. 


Pile  Average      Penetra-       Load  in 

Lengths.    Diameter.         lion.  Tons. 


Feet.  Inches.         Inches. 

Silt 40  10                6                 2^ 

Mud 30  2                6 

Soft  earth  with  bowlders  or  logs ....  30  lA               7 
Moderately    firm    earth    or    clay   with 

bowlders  or  logs 30        i          8  i                  9 

Soft  earth  or  clay 30  10                 i                  <) 

Quicksand 30  8                    i  12 

Firm  earth 30  8  12 

Firm  earth  into  sand  or  gravel 20  i  14 

Firm  earth  to  rock 20  o  20 

Sand 20  8                  o  20 

Grave!    15  o  20 


When  the  penetration  is  less  than  given  above,  for  soft 
soils,  the  safe  load  may  be  increased  according  to  the  for- 
mula. 

CONCRETE  CAPPING  ON  PILES. — The  very  common  mode 
of  capping  the  piles  with  a  layer  of  Portland-cement  concrete 
meets  all  requirements  as  to  strength,  and  preserving  the  tim- 
bers, and  is  favored  by  the  best  engineering  practice.  After 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  2  I/ 

the  concrete  is  brought  level  with  the  top  of  the  piles,  ad- 
ditional layers  are  placed  over  the  whole  foundation,  as 
shown  by  the  detail  figure  of  Lord's  Court  foundation.  The 
depth  of  the  concrete  represents  the  rise  and  fall  of  tide. 

SHORING  AND  SHEATH-PILING  UNDER  LORD'S  COURT 
BUILDING. — In  order  to  cut  off  the  piles  to  within  one  foot 
of  low  water  in  the  foundation  of  Lord's  Court  Building  it 
was  necessary  to  build  trenches  of  sheath-piling  around  the 
exterior  walls  and  under  the  interior  column-piers.  The  ex- 
terior party-walls  were  underpinned  and  shored,  while  the 
adjoining  walls  were  extended  down  to  the  concrete  capping 
of  piles.  All  these  trenches  were  enclosed  with  white-pine 
boards  6x2  in.,  tongued  and  grooved,  and  braced  with  8  x  S 
in.  cross-timbers.  The  soil  was  then  taken  out.  the  water 
kept  at  a  low  level  by  pumping,  and  the  piles  were  cut  off 
and  concrete  rammed  in,  each  layer  following  in  succession 
when  the  last  layer  had  become  hard  and  dry. 

This  process  was  also  followed  in  the  foundation-trenches 
of  the  Central  Bank  Building  to  support  the  dry  sand,  but  the 
boards  were  not  tongued  and  grooved,  and  no  pumps  were 
used. 

SHORING  AND  SHEATH-PILING  REQUIREMENTS  LX  THK 
CENTRAL  BANK  BUILDING. — The  following  specifications 
covered  the  shoring  and  sheath-piling  in  the  Central  Hank 
Building: 

"  All  necessary  shoring,  sheath-piling,  underpinning,  and 
spur-bracing  along  party-wall  line  on  north  and  east  side  of 
building,  also  all  necessary  bracing  for  vault- walls  along 
Broadway  and  Pearl  Street,  including  returns  to  building. 

"  Bridge  over  sidewalk  on  Broadway  and  along  Pearl 
Street  out  to  curb  lines;  bridge  to  be  10  ft.  wide  on  Broad- 
way and  6  ft.  wide  on  Pearl  Street,  and  raised  3  ft.  above  side- 
walk. Uprights  supporting  overhead  platforms  to  be  well 


218  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

l>raced  and  made  sufficiently  strong  to  carry  building  ma- 
terials, and  planked  up  to  the  building  line,  with  outer  edge 
guarded.  The  braces  to  be  removed,  shifted,  and  replaced 
•\vhen  required. 

"  Provide  a  double-rail  fence  with  steps  to  approaches 
on  both  sides  of  bridge. 

"  Bidders  must  examine  plans  before  submitting  pro- 
posal. 

"  Protect  all  subways,  hydrants,  lamp-posts,  gas-mains, 
and  any  property  belonging  to  the  city  or  private  corpora- 
tions. 

"  Protect  the  owner  from  any  suit  for  damages  to  any 
person  or  persons  or  to  the  property  of  any  person  or  persons 
arising  during  the  progress  of  and  by  reason  of  the  perform- 
ing of  the  contract." 

PNEUMATIC  CAISSONS. — From  the  foregoing  it  will  at 
once  be  seen  that  for  supporting  the  loads  the  ordinary  build- 
ing foundations  present  no  difficulty,  but  for  very  heavy  and 
high  buildings  where  it  is  not  possible  to  get  a  sufficient  and 
satisfactory  foundation  upon  soil  and  piles  some  other 
scheme  has  to  be  resorted  to:  hence  where  considerable 
depths  are  involved  the  pneumatic  process  is  admirably 
adapted,  and  has  been  used  with  success  in  the  Manhattan 
Life  Insurance  Building,  the  American  Surety  Building,  the 
Washington  Life  Building,  the  Kmpire  Building  and  others, 
all  of  \ew  York. 

The  pneumatic  caissons  for  the  foundation-work  of  build- 
ings are  made  of  steel  plates  riveted  together.  The  side  or 
shell,  as  well  as  the  roof,  is  made  of  thin  metal,  leaving  the 
maximum  amount  of  space  to  be  filled  with  concrete  or  other 
masonry  which  forms  the  foundation.  The  excavation  is 
made  under  or  in  the  caisson  under  air-pressure  sufficient  to 
hold  back  anv  water-bearing  material  which  mav  underlie  the 


HIGH   OFFICE-B I'll. DINGS. 


foundations  of  adjoining'  buildings.  The  foundations  arc  thus 
easily  carried  down  to  bed-roc!:  without  the  slightest  dis- 
turbance of  surrounding  foundations. 

After  the  caisson  has  been  sunk  to  its  proper  depth  and 
bed-rock  has  been  reached,  the  surface  of  the  latter  is  care- 
fully prepared  to  receive  the  concrete  filling  of  the  air-cham- 


Fir,.    TOT. — SHMXVINC;   MANNK.K   or   Kx<  AVATINC   CAISSONS. 

ber.  All  clay,  sand,  or  other  loose  stuff,  and  any  soft  portions 
of  the  rock,  are  cleared  off  and  made  level. 

Circular  or  rectangular  caissons  are  generally  used,  the 
load  and  spread  of  the  foundation  determining  the  shape. 
The  height  of  the  working-chamber  is  generally  about  S  feet, 
as  shown  by  the  view.  Fig.  101.  section  showing  manner  of 
excavating  in  caissons. 

CAISSON  DKTAIL. — The  sectional  plan  and  top  view.  Fig. 
1 02.  shows  the  general  construction  of  a  square  caisson.  It 
is  2^  ft.  o  in.  bv  ji  ft.  o  in.  bv  I  i  ft.  d  in.  high,  and  built  en- 


220 


THE    PLANNING    A. YD    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


tirely  of  steel  plates,  angles,  and  beams.  The  sides  are  -g-in. 
plates  and  stiffened  with  brackets  made  of  6  x  6  in.  steel 
angles,  and  further  stiffened  by  /-in.  steel  bulbs  placed  hori- 
zontally between  the  brackets.  In  the  centre  of  the  roof  a 
shaft  4  feet  in  diameter  is  constructed,  with  air-lock,  for  the 
use  of  men  in  entering  and  leaving  the  working-chamber, 
and  also  for  filling  the  chamber  after  the  caisson  has  reached 
rock.  This  caisson  was  used  at  the  Manhattan  Life  Insur- 


FIG.  102. — TOP  VIEW  OF  PNEUMATIC  CAISSON,  MARKED  "M"  ON  SECTION 

OF   FOUNDATION. 

ance  Building.      Fig.   103  shows  the  transverse  section,  and 
the  caisson  marked  "  M  "  referred  to  above. 

HYDRAULIC  CAISSONS. — A  later  method  of  sinking 
foundations  is  that  where  open  steel  caissons  are  forced  down 
by  the  hydraulic  process.  The  material  through  which  the 
caisson  sinks  is  removed  by  forcing  water  under  pressure 


///(///   OFI-1L E-BL'lLDIi\GS. 


221 


through  vertical  pipes  from  the  surface  of  the  soil  in  the  ex- 
cavating chamber,  so  as  to  scour  out  the  materials. 

The  caissons  are  sunk  to  the  required  depth  through  loose 
soil  without  the  use  of  pneumatic  pressure  or  the  entrance  of 
workmen  into  the  excavating  chamber,  the  progress  being 
regulated  and  alignment  maintained  by  turning  on  and  off 
the  jets  in  the  different  parts  of  the  caisson,  and  by  weighting 
it  in  the  usual  manner. 


MI;.    103. — TKANSVKRSK    SKCTION    <>i-    FOUNDATION,    MANHATTAN    I.n-i 


After  the  caisson  has  been  sunk  it  is  tilled  with  grout. 
etc.,  injected  through  the  same  tube,  so  as  to  make  a  solid 
bed.  the  water  pumped  out.  and  the  concrete  masonry  tilled 
in  to  the  building  foundation. 

These  open  caissons  are  lap-jointed  steel  cylinders,  each 
about  h  feet  high,  and  their  diameter  from  4  to  in  feet,  de- 
pending, as  in  the  pneumatic  process,  on  the  size  of  founda- 
tion required.  As  they  are  simply  a  shield  to  exclude  the 
earth  and  water  during  excavation  and  tilling,  and  bear  no 


222  THE   PLANNING    AND    CO\7STRL'CTION   OF 

part  of  the  superstructure,  they  are  therefore  made  of  thin 
steel  plates  -j  in.  to  £  in.  thick.  The  caissons  are  shod  with 
special  cutting  edges  of  segments  of  hollow  castings  bolted 
to  the  inside  of  the  shell.  Several  tall  and  heavy  office-build- 
ings have  had  their  foundations  put  in  successfully  by  this 
process. 

ForxDATioxs  UPON  STEEL  BEAMS  AXD  CONCRETE.— 
Another  style  of  foundation,  composed  of  steel  beams  joined 
together  by  bolts,  with  the  space  between  filled  with  con- 
crete, is  frequently  used  under  these  large  buildings.  By  this 
so-called  "  raft  or  grillage  system,"  in  which  alternate  layers 
of  steel  beams  of  lessening  length  are  employed,  it  is  practi- 
cable to  spread  the  bearing  to  a  sufficient  extent  to  require 
only  a  minimum  amount  of  cellar  space. 

The  peculiarity  of  the  Chicago  soil,  of  12  to  T;  fee'  of 
moderately  firm  soil  overlying  a  much  softer  clay  40  to  50 
feet  thick,  led  to  the  adoption  there  of  the  above  method 
under  a  great  number  of  buildings,  although  piling  is  com- 
mon in  that  city. 

In  Xew  Ni  ork  the  raft  method  is  frequently  employed,  bur 
is  open  to  the  objection  that  the  conditions  throughout  the 
soil  area  are  apt  not  to  be  uniform.  And  there  is  often  a 
very  serious  objection  that  at  some  part,  if  not  under  the 
entire  building,  the  material  at  certain  depths  mav  be  sandy 
or  of  the  nature  of  quicksand,  and  may  yield  or  be  relieved  at 
some  future  time. 

MAXXER  OF  SETTIXG  STEEL  BEAMS  ix  FOUNDATIONS. — 
Before  the  beams  are  laid  they  should  be  cleaned  thoroughly, 
and  while  absolutely  dry  be  heated  and  coated  with  coal-tar. 
The  beams  should  be  set  upon  a  bed  of  concrete  of  good 
thickness,  certainly  not  less  than  12  inches.  Upon  this  con- 
crete the  beams  should  be  carefully  bedded.  The  distance 
apart  should  not  be  greater  than  the  height  of  the  beams. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


223 


and  they  should  not  be  set  too  closely  together  to  prevent  the 
ramming  of  the  concrete. 

METHOD  OF  CALCULATING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  GRILLAGE 
BEAMS. — The  various  rolling-mills  in  their  handbooks  give 
methods  of  calculating  these  beams  for  foundations,  and  we 
have  taken  the  following  table  and  calculations  from  the 
Handbook  (1897)  of  the  Passaic  Rolling  Mill  Co. 

TOTAL  SAKE  LOAD  ON  A  SINGLE  BEAM   IN  TONS  OK  2000  POUNDS  FOR  THE 
FOLLOWING  VALUES  OK  L  —  B. 

L  =  length  of   beam    in    feet;   />  =  length    in   feet  over  which    superim- 
posed load  is  distributed. 


Be;un. 


Unloaded   Length  of  Beam  /,   —  />'  in  Feet. 


•So   .-a 

8 

10 

1  1 

'3    M    15 

O     ''A 

j 

20    90 

115   100   89.2 

80.3 

73-0 

66.9 

61.8  57.4  5  3.6 

20     80 

IO2     89.6   79,8 

71-7 

65.2 

5Q-S 

55-2  51-2  47.  > 

2O     64 

87.5  76.8  68.1 

61.3 

55-7 

51.1 

47-1  43-  S  4(>-9 

15     60 

64.8  ]  56.6  50.4 

45-4 

41.2 

37-S 

34.9  32.4  30.2 

If,     =;0 

53.8  47.0  41.8 

37-7 

34-2 

31.4 

29.0  26.9  25.1 

15     41 

43-7  3^-2  34-° 

30.6 

27'  7 

25-5 

23.5  21.9  20.4 

12     40 

41.6  35.8  31.3  27.8 

2^.0 

22.7 

20.  S 

19.2  17.9  16.7 

12     32 

32.6  28.0  24.5  21.8 

19.6 

17.8 

16.3 

i  ?.  i   14.0  13.1 

'°    33 

34.4  28.6  24.6  21.5   19.1 

]  7-  2 

15.6 

14.3 

13.2  12.3  11.5 

io    25 

26.2   21.  S   18.7   16.3   14.5 

I3.I 

II.  g 

10.9 

io.  i   9.3   8.7 

9    27 

26.2   21.  S  '  18.7   16.4   14.6 

I3.I 

n.g 

10.9 

to.  i   9.4  :  8.7 

9    21 

20.  o  16.7  14.3  12.5  i  i.i 

1O.O 

9.1 

8-3 

7.7   7.1   6.7 

8    1  8 

15.1   12.6  10.8   9.4   V4 

7.6 

6.0 

f)-3 

5.8 

To  illustrate  the  application  of  the  table,  take  a  founda- 
tion carrying  a  load  of  400  tons  on  a  soil  capable  of  carrying 
2  tons  per  square  foot.  The  required  area  of  the  footing  will 
be  200  square  feet.  If  a  square  footing  is  used,  a  square  with 
i-j-ft.  sides  has  an  area  of  196  square  feet,  and  will  be  assumed 
as  ample.  The  upper  layer  of  beams  will  be  proportioned 
first.  The  base-plate  resting  upon  the  upper  layer  will  be 


224 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


assumed  as  4  feet  square;  then  in  this  case  R  is  4  ft.,  L  is  14 
ft.,  and  L  —  B  10  ft.  The  upper  layers  will  be  assumed  to  con- 
sist of  five  beams,  as  this  number  is  the  greatest  that  will  pro- 
vide sufficient  space  between  the  flanges  of  the  beams  to  per- 
mit satisfactory  ramming  of  the  concrete  filling.  Each  beam 
will  take  one  fifth  of  the  total  load,  or  80  tons.  By  referring 


Ki<;.    104. — STEKL-HEAM  SECTION   OK  GKILLA<;K   FOUNDATION. 

to  the  table,  a  20-111.  (jo-lb.  beam  has  a  safe  load  of  80.30  tons 
when  L  —  B  is  10  ft.  The  upper  layer  will  therefore  consist  of 
five  2O-in.  90-!!).  I  beams. 

In  the  under  layer,  in  this  instance,  L  and  B  have  the  same 
value  as  the  upper  layer.  If  the  beams  are  spaced  about  12  in. 
on  centres,  there  will  be  fifteen  beams  in  the  layer,  each  carry- 
ing one  fifth  of  the  total  load,  or  26?,  tons.  The  lightest 
beam  by  the  table  is  a  15-in.  42-!!).,  which  has  a  safe  load  of 
30.6  tons.  A  less  number  of  beams  can  therefore  be  used. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  22$ 

Thirteen  15-in.  42-!!).  beams  will  provide  for  the  total  load 
within  a  small  amount,  which,  considering  the  nature  of  the 
load,  can  be  neglected.  See  the  illustration  Fig.  104.  Where 
two  columns  carrying  unequal  loads  rest  upon  the  same  gril- 
lage, care  should  be  taken  to  have  the  centre  of  gravity  of  the 
grillage  coincide  with  the  point  of  application  of  the  result- 
lint  of  the  loads  on  the  columns,  in  order  to  secure  uniform 
pressure  on  the  footing. 


226  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
THE  MACHINERY-HALL. 

THE  continued  success  in  a  commercial  sense  of  a  high 
office-building  is  undoubtedly  due  to  its  perfected  mechani- 
cal services,  and  in  planning  the  building  the  architect  will  be 
required  to  seek  the  service  of  engineers  who  have  made 
these  branches  of  mechanics  their  special  study.  The  dif- 
ference between  the  cost  of  operating  a  badly  designed 
plant  and  one  properly  designed  will  in  many  cases  be  the 
measure  of  success  or  failure. 

In  the  matter  of  space  strict  economy  should  not  be  prac- 
tised in  placing  machinery,  as  the  proper  disposition  of  its 
parts  in  a  mechanical  sense  will  no  doubt  make  it  do  its  work- 
more  economically  and  probably  give  it  a  much  longer  life. 

In  designing  the  machinery-hall  it  is  important  that  the 
boiler,  chimney,  engines,  pumps,  elevators,  and  dynamos 
should  not  be  restricted  to  hot  or  damp  places,  as  their  life 
is  just  so  long  under  good  conditions,  and  is  rapidly  short- 
ened if  every  facility  for  maintenance  is  not  afforded.  So. 
too,  with  the  question  of  labor.  If  firemen  are  to  operate 
in  dark,  hot  places,  or  with  a  severe  strain  of  attention,  they 
cannot  do  advantageous  work.  Quoting  from  an  authority 
on  the  subject.  "  It  will  be  found  sometimes  that  an  appara- 
tus which  is  more  costly  in  fuel  may  be  the  cheaper  one  to 
employ,  if  its  action  is  so  reliable  as  to  reduce  labor  and  at- 
tention to  a  greater  extent.  Itisquite  possible  that  in  arrang- 
ing a  plant  the  engine  and  tire-room  staff  may  in  one  case  be 
double  that  required  in  another.  Xo  plant  should  be  settled 


HIGH    OfFlCE-RL'Il.DIXGS.  22"J 

upon  until  the  owner  is  satisfied  as  to  what  he  will  have  to 
pay  for  labor,  operation,  maintenance,  and  depreciation.  It 
is  the  little  details  of  space,  arrangement,  and  proportion 
that  decide  these  economically.  These  little  details  are  nu- 
merous and  connected  with  every  operating  part.  The  posi- 
tion of  boilers,  of  fuel,  of  valves,  and  the  access  for  cleaning, 
lubrication,  light,  ventilation,  all  bear  a  part  in  deciding  a 
day's  work.  With  these  preliminary  considerations,  and 
presuming  we  have  with  them  a  willingness  to  provide  the 
best  space  and  position  which  the  building  will  economically 
afford  for  the  proposed  equipment,  we  start  to  consider  its 
details. 

'  The  first  question  that  arises  is,  whether  a  power  plant 
shall  be  installed  to  operate  the  equipment.  There  is  likely  to 
be  electricity,  water, and  gas  in  the  street. and  these  combined 
may  afford  the  necessary  facilities.  There  are  cases  where 
they  do  so  even  at  an  economy,  chiefly  an  economy  of  labor. 
If  the  water  service  is  at  sufficient  pressure,  it  will  deliver  to 
the  roof.  If  the  gas  is  cheap  and  of  regular  quality,  it  can  be 
used  in  a  gas-engine  to  provide  light  or  to  pump  water.  If 
the  electric  supply  is  cheap  and  dependable,  it  may  be  used 
for  both  purposes,  or  even  for  a  little  heating  work.  (Jas- 
engines  are  not  capable  of  the  closest  regulation  of  speed, 
but  are  verv  serviceable  even  in  inexperienced  hands.  The 
petroleum-engine  is  equally  so.  lUit  when  large  services  are 
required,  disadvantages  arc  encountered.  It  is  the  same 
with  electric  street  supply.  It  may  in  some  cases  pay  for  its 
extra  cost  in  the  saving  of  labor  and  cost  of  plant.  Where 
the  work  is  large,  it  will  not  do  so.  The  chief  weakness  of 
the  above  is  in  the  fact  that  they  do  not  cover  the  necessitv 
of  heating.  In  Xew  \  ork  C'ity  there  is  a  steam  supplv  to  be 
obtained,  but  its  cost  is  prohibitory.  Net  there  are  cases 
where  it  has  been  found  an  economv  to  mill  out  boilers  and 


22 »  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

make  use  of  the  street  supply.  This  would  not  be  the  case 
with  a  well-designed  plant.  Sometimes  a  near  neighbor  may 
have  a  reliable  steam-service  to  spare,  and  in  such  case  most 
advantageous  arrangements  may  be  made.  Any  large  power 
station  has  exhaust  steam,  which  it  could  afford  to  give  away 
if  the  condensed  water  were  returned  to  it.  A  couple  of  pipes 
laid  under  the  street  is  all  the  outside  disturbance  necessary. 
The  same  remarks  hold  good,  in  degree,  of  electric  supply, 
with  which  many  plants  could  supply  their  neighbors  at  a 
very  low  rate. 

"  Granted  the  decision  to  be  in  favor  of  an  isolated  plant, 
the  following  questions  arise  for  decision:  The  chimney  is 
in  some  ways  the  most  difficult  problem,  because  its  results 
are  so  uncertain.  Study  and  judgment  are  quite  as  neces- 
sary as  scientific  rule  in  deciding  its  proportions  and  loca- 
tion. Xo  two  of  the  established  rules  give  equal  conditions. 
Surroundings,  wind,  temperature,  all  affect  its  pulling 
powers,  and  when  these  are  decided  the  access  and  travel 
of  air  to  the  furnace  will  still  further  affect  the  result.  The 
quality  of  coal,  its  delivery  and  storage,  need  experience  and 
solicitude.  There  are  coals  suited  to  certain  conditions,  and 
a  more  expensive  coal  may  prove  the  cheaper  investment 
bv  its  economy  in  handling.  The  claims  of  boiler-makers 
are  not  to  be  relied  upon  in  this  connection. 

"  Boilers  are  the  life  of  an  installation,  and  at  the  same 
time  quite  its  most  vulnerable  point.  Their  name  is  legion 
and  their  faults  as  numerous.  A  knowledge  of  boiler  con- 
struction and  design  is  absolutely  necessary  to  enable  a  safe 
and  fair  comparison  to  be  made  of  their  respective  features, 
merits,  and  demerits.  It  is  not  too  much  to  say  that  all  are 
faulty,  and  that  as  much  depends  on  the  way  they  are  made 
as  upon  the  form  in  which  they  are  made.  Xo  boiler  should 
be  purchased  until  the  facilities,  methods,  tools,  and  materi- 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


229 


230  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

als  used  in  the  boiler-shop  are  known.  The  inspection  of  in- 
surance companies  is  very  small  matter  for  reliance,  and 
police  inspection  is  a  farce  under  present  systems.  To  a 
large  extent  the  services  of  office-buildings  hinge  on  the  pro- 
portions of  elevator  duty.  It  requires  the  closest  considera- 
tion as  to  its  extent  and  schedule,  while  the  proportions  of 
cages  and  of  doors  affect  the  result  almost  equally  with 
speed.  Many  buildings  are  oversupplied,  more  are  under- 
supplied.  The  number  is  frequently  fixed  by  reference  to 
other  buildings,  which  if  analyzed  would  be  found  largely  in 
error.  The  cost  of  the  service  has  been  the  subject  of  lively 
agitation  in  engineering  circles,  and  the  respective  solutions 
offered  by  hydraulic  and  by  electric  power  have  been  acri- 
moniously discussed.  The  matter  must  be  decided  by  a 
dispassionate  consideration  of  the  bearings,  not  only  in  cost 
of  fuel  but  in  labor,  in  first  cost  and  in  maintenance." 

THE  MACHINERY-HALL  OF  THE  CENTRAL  RANK  BTILD- 
ixr,  DESCRIBED. — The  illustration  Fig.  105  shows  somewhat 
in  detail  the  general  arrangement  of  the  machinery  depart- 
ment of  the  Central  Bank  Building.  The  boiler-room  is  at 
the  east  end  of  the  building  and  is  about  5  ft.  deeper  than  the 
engine-room,  from  which  it  is  separated  by  a  partition  of 
brick  and  glass.  The  boilers  are  arranged  as  shown,  and  con- 
nected to  the  vertical  circular  smoke-flue.  The  steam-sup- 
ply pipes  are  overhead,  as  shown  by  the  full  line,  and  the  ex- 
haust-pipes are  in  trendies  underground,  as  shown  bv  the 
broken  lines.  The  space  in  the  boiler-room  not  taken  up  by 
the  boilers  and  for  stoking  is  devoted  to  the  tire,  house,  feed, 
and  drip  pumps,  etc.  That  part  of  the  engine-room  not  re- 
quired of  machinery  contains  the  engineers'  quarters,  house- 
supplv  and  electric-supply  fixtures,  etc. 

BOILERS. — The  boilers  of  the  Central  Bank  Building  are 
of  the  water-tube  type.  Fig.  ion  and  section  Fig.  107,  and 


///<///    OFHCE-BUlLDlfl,  GS. 


231 


'.     c 


232  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

three  in  number;  the  largest  in  separate  setting-,  the  inter- 
mediate and  smallest  size  of  battery,  and  all  of  the  following 
capacities  : 

Normal  Evaporation. 

Xo.    i 3000  pounds  per  hour. 

Xo.  2 4200 

Xo.   3 6600 

Disengaging  Surface. 
Xo.    i 66  square  feet. 

Xo.     2 126 

No.  3 132       " 

Heating  Surface. 

Xo.    i 1092  square  feet. 

Xo.   2 1368 

Xo.   3 2208 

Stcam-s^acc. 

Xo.    i 79  i  cubic  feet. 

Xo.   2 152 

Xo.   3 159 

//  'atcr-space. 

Xo.    T H/>9  gallons,  263  cubic  feet. 

No.   2 3350       "         444     " 

Xo.  3 3939       "         525     " 

Crate  Surface. 

Xo.    i 7  feet  long,  138  square  feet. 

Xo.   2 7    "        "       138        "          " 

Xo.   3 7    "        "       138        " 


HIGH  OFFICE'S U1LD INGS, 


234  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

The  working  pressure  is  no  pounds  per  square  inch. 

The  space  for  the  three  boilers  is  in  the  sub-basement  as 
shown  on  the  plan,  affording  16.9  feet  for  the  double  setting 
and  11.6  feet  for  the  single  setting.  The  headroom  above 
stoking-level  is  \  5  feet,  with  a  drop  of  one  foot  for  a  false 
ceiling,  which  is  made  of  steel  tees  rilled  in  between  with 
magnesia  blocks. 

The  steam  and  water  drains  are  of  large  proportions,  and 
constructed  of  "  open-hearth  "  steel  plates,  having  a  tensile 
strength  of  60,000  pounds  per  square  inch.  The  drums  are 
double-riveted  in  longitudinal  seams,  dished  and  flanged  by 
a  hydraulic  press.  Edges  of  plates  are  planed  and  caulked. 
Horizontal  seams  are  double-riveted  and  girth-seams  are 
single-riveted,  by  steam-power.  The  manholes  and  lids  are 
of  the  same  steel,  provided  in  each  drum  with  reinforcing- 
plates  riveted  around  all  manholes. 

Steam-nozzles  are  provided  in  each  boiler  as  follows  : 
\o.  i,  5  in.  dia. ;  Xo.  2,  6  in.  dia.;  Xo.  3,  8  in.  dia. 

The  boiler-fronts  are  of  cast  iron  neatly  panelled,  and 
the  tire-bars  are  of  Ward's  dumping  pattern  for  burning 
buckwheat  coal 

Mountings  of  Boiler. 

Xo.   i .  two  nickel  safety-valves  3  in.  dia. 

Xo.  2,  4  ' 

X'o-  3.  5 

Xo.  i,  one  feed-stop  and  one  feed  check-valve  i  }  in. 

No.  2, "      "  "      ii   " 

Xo.  3.    •'  "       2      " 

Xo.   i.  blow-off  cocks,  Fairbanks,  2  in. 
Xo.  2.     "        "       "  "  2   " 

Xo.  3.      "  2$" 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  235 

For  each  boiler  there  are  provided  one  Reliance  water- 
column  with  improved  connection  to  levels,  gauges,  cocks, 
etc.  ;  a  1 2-inch  Marsh  illuminated-dial  steam-gauge  ;  one 
set  of  fire-tools;  one  complete  set  of  wrenches,  mounted  on 
board  and  hung  in  stoke-hole;  and  one  steam-jet  hose. 

These  boilers  have  many  good  points  of  recommenda- 
tion; namely,  straight,  smooth  passages  through  the  head- 
ers of  ample  area,  insuring  rapid  and  uninterrupted  circula- 
tion of  the  water;  the  baffling  of  the  gases  (without  throt- 
tling or  impeding  the  circulation  of  the  water)  in  such  a  way 
that  they  are  compelled  to  pass  over  every  portion  of  the 
heating  surface  ;  sufficient  liberating  surface  in  the  steam- 
drums  to  insure  dry  steam,  with  large  body  of  water  in  re- 
serve to  draw  from;  simplicity  in  construction;  accessibil- 
ity for  cleaning  and  inspection.  All  stay-bolted  surfaces  are 
omitted.  The  possibility  of  rupture  is  eliminated  from  the 
fact  that  the  headers  in  their  design  provide  for  the  unequal 
expansion  and  contraction  of  the  long  tubes.  These  headers 
have  inside  plates,  and  the  higher  the  pressure  the  more 
secure  are  the  joints. 

KXGIXKS. — There  are  three  direct-connected  single- 
cylinder  automatic  cut-off  engines.  (See  illustration  Fig. 
108.) 

Engine  "A",  the  largest — 15  >  14  in.,  direct-connected 
to  the  ioo-K.\\  .  generator. 

(icncral  Dimensions,  etc. 

Horse-power  180,  based  on  250  revolutions  per  minute. 

Diameter  of  cylinder  15  in. 

Length  of  stroke  14  in. 

Diameter  of  governor-wheel  70  in.;  weight  4480  Ibs. 

\\ idth  of  face  of  governor-wheel  15  in. 


236  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

Length  of  engine  over  all  10  ft.  7  in.;  weight  complete 
15,500  Ibs. 

Width  of  engine  over  all  9  ft. 

Diameter  of  steam-pipe  5  in. 

Diameter  of  exhaust-pipe  7  in. 

Diameter  of  crank-pin  7^  in. 

Engine   "B"—  iixi2    in.,    direct-connected   to   the    75- 
K.\Y.  generator. 

General  Dimensions. 

Horse-power  90,  based  on  275  revolutions  per  minute. 
Diameter  of  cylinder  1 1  in. 
Length  of  stroke  12  in. 

Diameter  of  governor-wheel  60  in.;  weight  2225  Ibs. 
\Yidth  of  face  of  governor-wheel  12  in. 
Length  of  engine  over  all  9  ft.  3  in.;  weight  io,oco  Ibs. 
Width  of  engine  over  all  8  ft. 
Diameter  of  steam-pipes  4  in. 
Diameter  of  exhaust-pipes  5  in. 
Diameter  of  crank-pin  6  in. 

Engine  "  C  '  — 9  x  10  in.,  direct-connected  to  the  25-K.\Y. 
generator. 

General  Dimensions,  etc. 

Horse-power  50,  based  on  300  revolutions  per  minute. 

Diameter  of  cylinder  9  in. 

Length  of  stroke  10  in. 

Diameter  of  governor-wheel  50  in.;  weight  14/2  Ibs. 

Width  of  face  of  governor-wheel  9  in. 

Length  of  engine  over  all  7  ft.  8  in.;  weight  6000  Ibs. 

Width  of  engine  over  all  6  ft.  4  in. 

Diameter  of  steam-pipe  3i  in. 

Diameter  of  exhaust-pipe  4^  in. 

Diameter  of  crank-pin  5  in. 


HltJff  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  257 

Fittings. — Each  engine  is  furnished  with  the  following 
fittings,  which  include  everything  necessary  for  a  complete 
outfit: 

One  throttle-valve.     One  exhaust-valve. 

Full  set  of  sight-feed  oil-cups  nickelled. 

( )ne  Detroit  sight-feed  lubricator,  double  glass,  nickelled. 

Full  set  of  finished  steel  wrenches. 

( )ne  engineer's  wrench-board. 

Full  set  of  handles  for  removing  steam-chest  cover,  pis- 
ton, and  other  parts. 

Full  set  of  valves,  steam-cocks,  bibb-cock,  etc.,  far  all 
drips. 

Full  set  of  foundation-bolts  with  anchor-plates  and  fin- 
ished cup-nuts  for  engine  and  dynamo  foundation. 

DYNAMOS. — The  following  is  a  description  of  the  three 
dynamos  in  connection  with  the  above  engines: 

One  having  capacity  of   100   K.\Y.,  marked  "  A.'' 
One  having  capacity  of     50  KAY.,  "  B." 

One  having  capacity  of     25   KAY..  "  C.v 

Details  of  these  dynamos  are  as  follows: 

"A."  "  B."  "C." 

Type  of  dynamo .M.I'.  i>-  100-250.      M.P.  6-50-280.      M.P.  6-25-305. 

Number  of  poles 6                                   6  6 

Kilowatts 100  50  25 

Voltage I  K)  to  125  i  10  to  125  I  10  to  125 

Amperes 800  400  200 

Required  speed 250  rev.  275  rev.  300  rev. 

Approximate  weights..                   7600  Ibs.  6200  Ihs.  2700  Ibs. 

The  field-frames  and  pole-pieces  are  of  soft  cast  steel  of 
the  highest  magnetic  permeability;  the  field-coils  are  wound 
on  metal  spools  and  insulated  therefrom  by  standard  mica 
and  fibre  insulation.  The  armatures  are  of  the  ventilated 
type,  built  ii])  of  soft-steel  plates.  The  winding  is  of  the 
barrel  pattern  with  flexible  connections  to  commutator.  The 


238 


THE    PLANNING    AXD    CONSTRUCTION    Of- 


commutator  is  of  the  carbon-brush  type,  with  a  sufficient 
number  of  carbon  brushes  so  that  the  current  density  does 
not  exceed  40  amperes  per  square  inch  of  surface. 


FIG.    108. — DIRECT-CONNECTED    ENGINK  AND    GENERATOR,    CENTRAL    HANK 

BUILDING. 

ELECTRIC-LIGHT  INSTALLATION  ix  THE  CENTRAL  BANK 
BriLDiNG. — The  lighting  installation  in  the  Central  Bank 
Building  consists  of  a  complete  conduit  and  wiring  system  of 
fifteen  floors,  basement  and  subbasement.  to  1/96  outlets, 
arranged  for  about  2031  incandescent  lamps  of  if>  candle- 
power.  72  of  32  candle-power,  and  for  20  arc-lamps.  The 
system  employed  is  the  vertical-circuit  arrangement.  3-wirc 
to  2-wire,  for  Edison  Co.  supply  and  house-supply.  The  dis- 
tribution-boxes are  situated  in  the  subbasement,  and  the 
junction-boxes  are  upon  the  sixth  and  seventh  floors.  The 
arc-light  circuits  are  run  out  from  the  nearest  vertical  feeder, 
and  each  lam])  is  provided  with  a  switch. 

The  vertical  arrangement  consists  of  nine  3-wire  main 
feeders  from  the  switchboard  to  the  nine  distribution-boxes. 
thence  3-wire  subfeeders  carried  to  location  of  each  vertical 
circuit. 

The  vertical  circuits  are  50  in  number. 

Thence  the  neutral  and  one  outside  wire  are  carried  to  a 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


239 


junction-box  on  the  middle  floor.     The  third  wire  is  carried 
up  as  one  leg  of  the  vertical  circuit. 

The  vertical  circuit  in  2-wire  extends  from  subbasement 


SANK 


fg]  D/ST. . 


Fn;.    iO(|.--\'KKTic,vi.   AKRANC.KMKNT   OF    ELECTRIC   WIKINC,    SYSTKM. 

to  top-tloor  outlet.  The  arrangement  is  as  shown  on  dia- 
gram. Fig.  109.  requiring  two  conduits  from  distribution-box 
to  junction-box  of  each  circuit,  with  two  wires  in  each. 


24O  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION'   OF 

Thence  one  conduit  to  top-floor  outlet,  with  two  wires  in 
same. 

The  Bank  floor  has  a  separate  feeder. 

The  conduits  throughout  the  building-  are  the  interior 
Conduit  Co.'s. 

The  wire  employed  is  that  known  as  the  Grimshaw  White 
Core, 

All  the  tubes  extend  up  the  columns,  and  where  two  or 
four  lights  are  placed  on  opposite  sides  of  the  column  the 
tubes  were  bent  at  the  corners  to  a  radius  of  6  inches,  so  that 
it  was  possible  to  draw  the  wires  without  injury. 

The  distribution-boxes,  located  as  heretofore  mentioned, 
are  built  on  the  adjustable  system,  that  is,  a  box  within  a  box. 
having  a  common  slate  back  with  space  to  allow  of  connec- 
tion being  arranged  all  at  one  side. 

The  boxes  are  built  of  oak  to  match  the  interior  trim  of 
the  building,  lined  with  slate  ]  in.  thick  secured  with  brass 
screws.  The  panelled  door  is  similarly  lined,  has  brass 
hinges,  and  is  secured  with  lock  and  key. 

The  outlet-boxes  are  of  cast  iron  of  a  specially  designed 
pattern,  about  ^\  in.  square,  and  set  in  flush  with  the  plas- 
tering. 

All  the  offices  have  a  floor  outlet-box  set  in  a  convenient 
manner  for  an  office  desk,  6  in.  above  the  floor. 

The  elevator-cable  outlets,  six  in  number  for  twelve- 
lamps,  are  situated  midway  up  the  elevator-shafts.  The  five 
passenger-elevator  outlets  are  run  as  one  separate  circuit 
from  the  nearest  distribution-box. 

SwrrciiJiOAkn  OF  TIIK  CKXTKAL  I>AXK  I'TILDI  x<;. — The 
switchboard  of  the  building  is  arranged  as  shown  by  the  illus- 
tration. Fig.  i  10. 

The  board  is  of  white  Italian  6  ft.  6  in.  wide,  8  ft.  high, 
and  i!  in.  thick,  and  located  as  shown  on  the  plan.  It  is 


HIC.H   OFFICE-BUILD L\GS. 


241 


>ecured  to  an  angle-iron  frame  extending  around  it,  and  is 
supported  by  iron  legs  and  thoroughly  braced. 


aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa 
aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aaa  aan  aaa  aaa 

200  A  M  P 


qpoumnia  bw 


aan 

DYNAMO  ^*i 


nan 

DVhAMO  HIS 

ana 

8O04MP 
DOU5LC  5LADE 


aan 


aaa 

4OOAMP 

mGLC  DL4DC 


Flli.     1IO.  —  DlAURA.M     01      S\\  1  I  (HliOA  KI)     IN     T  UK    CK.NTKAI.     1J)ANK     Hi  ILIHNC,. 

The  board  is  fitted  up  with  the  following  instruments  and 
fixtures: 

j  \Veston  station  illuminated-pattern  voltmeter  to  250 
v(^lts,  complete  with  5-p<jint  switch  connected  to  bus-bars  and 
2  dynamo  circuits. 

i  Weston  station  ground-detector  complete,  connected  to 
test  all  feeders. 

r  Weston  station  illuminated  shunt-pattern  ammeter  to 
1000  amperes,  for  Kdison  circuit. 


242  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

2  Western  station  illuminated  shunt-pattern  ammeters  to 
1000  amperes  each,  for  dynamo  circuits. 

i  triple  pole-cutter,  specially  designed  and'  hand-made, 
with  double-throw  knife-switch,  for  750  amperes,  for  main 
Edison  supply  to  bus-bars. 

i  triple  pole-cutter  as  above,  single-throw,  for  800 
amperes,  for  dynamo  A. 

i  triple  pole-cutter  as  above,  for  500  amperes,  for  dynamo 
B. 

i  triple  pole-cutter  as  above,  for  300  amperes,  for  dynamo 
C. 

10  triple  pole-cutters  as  above,  connecting  feeder-circuits 
to  bus-bars  each  200  amperes. 

All  the  above  switches  are  provided  with  copper-tipped 
link-fuses  to  each  pole. 

In  addition  to  the  fixtures  upon  the  switchboard  there 
are  three  Carpenter  enamel  rheostats,  connected  and  fitted  up 
complete,  with  nickel  hand-wheel  in  front  of  board,  indexed 
on  face;  also  Edison-pattern  fuses  to  each  feeder-circuit, 
mounted  on  back  of  board  and  provided  with  standard  cop- 
per-tipped fuse-links. 

The  Edison  meter,  which  is  in  the  engine-room,  has  three 
wires  carried  in  lead-covered  cable  set  in  a  trench  under  the 
cellar  floor,  protected  with  cast  plates,  leading  to  connection 
or  switchboard. 

The  leads  of  the  three  wires  from  the  generator  to  the 
switchboard  are  as  follows:  the  wire  from  the  ioo-KAY. 
machine  lias  a  making  capacity  of  800  amperes;  that  from  the 
5O-KAY.  machine  400  amperes;  and  that  from  the  25-K.W. 
machine  200  amperes. 

The  shunt  connections  are  brought  from  the  dynamo  ter- 
minals to  the  rheostats  on  the  switchboard,  and  are  laid  in 


HIGH  OFFICE-B  UILD1NGS. 


243 


Fir,,  in. — TELEGRAPH  AND  TELEPHONE  WIRING  SYSTEM   IN  TIIK 
CENTRAL  HANK   BTILDIM;. 


244  THE    PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

similar  trenches  as  above  under  the  surface  of  the  engine- 
room. 

This  plant  is  as  complete  as  could  be  designed,  and  at  this 
date,  after  several  months,  is  in  good  working  order. 

TELEGRAPH  AND  TELEPHONE  SYSTEM  IN  THE  CENTRAL 
BANK  BUILDING. — Owing  to  the  fact  that  architects  and 
builders  have  considerable  trouble  in  providing  large  build- 
ings with  a  suitable  system  of  wiring  for  district-messenger, 
telegraph,  and  telephone  connections,  such  as  might  be 
required  by  future  tenants,  the  author  believes  that  the  fol- 
lowing description  of  the  system  employed  at  the  Central 
Bank  Building  will  be  of  interest  to  his  readers. 

Referring  to  Fig.  1 1 1 ,  which  shows  the  general  wiring 
plan  employed,  the  heavy  black  lines  represent  a  lead-covered 
cable  extending  from  the  main  connecting-box  in  the  cellar 
to  the  interconnecting-box  located  near  the  ceiling  in  the 
hallway  on  each  floor.  The  broken  line  represents  a  2O-wire 
cable  extending  from  the  main  connecting-box  in  the  cellar 
up  through  all  the  interconnecting-boxes,  from  the  first  to 
the  fifteenth  floor  inclusive.  On  the  second  and  third  floors 
the  interconnecting-boxes  are  duplicated,  and  each  pair  is 
connected  by  means  of  a  i6-wire  cable. 

It  was  found  necessary  to  duplicate  the  boxes  and  place 
one  on  each  side  of  the  hallway  on  the  second  and  third 
floors,  because  the  grooved  cornice  was  not  continuous  all 
around  the  halls.  The  cables,  which  are  extended  to  the 
banking-room  on  the  first  floor,  to  the  basement  underneath, 
,'ind  to  the  store,  each  contain  12  instead  of  20  wires,  as  i- 
found  necessary  for  all  floors  above  the  first. 

The  district-messenger,  telegraph,  and  telephone  com- 
panies' service  enters  the  subcellar.  and  the  wires  are  con- 
nected to  the  cable  wires  in  the  main  connectinef-box  bv 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  245 

moans  of  the  numbered  connectors,  in  groups  from  i  to  20; 
one  group  being  provided  for  each  direct  cable,  and  one 
group  for  the  interconnecting  or  through  cable  which  con- 
nects to  the  boxes  on  all  floors. 

All  this  work  is  put  in  place  before  plastering  is  finished, 
the  plaster  cornices  of  halls  being  especially  prepared  for  run- 
ning the  wires  unexposed  in  a  groove  back  of  the  top  mem- 
ber or  crown  mould.  If  any  room  in  the  building  need  tele- 
graph or  telephone  communication,  it  is  a  very  easy  matter 
to  run  a  wire  from  the  boxes  in  the  hallway  to  the  room. 

ELEVATORS. 

As  we  have  already  stated,  the  success  of  high  buildings 
for  offices  depends  upon  good  elevator  service;  and  architects 
appreciate  this  fact  to  such  an  extent  that  considerably  more 
room  is  allowed  for  elevator-shafts  and  machinery  than  was 
formerly  the  case. 

Hydraulic  and  electric  elevators  each  have  their  advocates; 
and  owing  to  the  rival  claims  to  superiority  architects  and 
owners  are  often  likely  to  be  misled. 

As  a  study  of  the  features  of  each  may  be  of  interest,  we 
furnish  a  description  of  two  model  plants  representing  both 
systems. 

The  cages,  cars,  and  guidework  are  practically  the  same 
in  either  system,  the  essential  difference  being  found  behind 
the  lifting  cables.  The  service  demanded  is  also  claimed,  in 
both  cases,  to  be  within  the  limit  of  capacity  of  either  form  of 
service. 

HYDRAULIC  KLKVATORS  or  THK  CKNTRAL  HANK  BUILD- 
ING.— The  elevator  service  of  the  Central  Bank  Building  con- 
sists of  five  passenger-elevators  and  one  freight-elevator,  with 
one  sidewalk  or  ash  hoist,  pumps,  tanks,  etc..  compVte.  All 


246 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   6>/ 


the  passenger-elevators  are  hydraulic,  as  is  also  the  ash-hoist; 
but  the  freight-elevator  is  operated  by  steam.  The  five  pas- 
senger-elevators are  arranged  in  two  shafts,  as  shown  by  the 
regular  floor-plan  in  another  chapter,  three  in  one  and  two 
in  the  other.  A  plan  of  the  two  elevators  is  shown  in  Fig- 

o 
112. 


O 


I  I  •—•—•« 

!•—••  2-9»" i DOOK  2-S»-  —    4— IS'      -4— _'•<?*- I DOoO2'8r—     4 

Fic.  ii2.— PLAN  OF  COUPLED  ELEVATOR-CARS,  CENTRAL  BANK  BUILDING. 

The  space  occupied  by  these  five  cars  is  8  feet  in  depth; 
the  cars  being  5  ft.  i  i  in.  and  the  cylinders  about  2  feet. 
Each  car  is  5  ft.  7  in.  wide,  with  an  additional  19  inches  for 
guides  and  for  plumb-lining  the  shaft. 

The  height  of  the  lift  is  200  feet  from  first-floor  level 
to  the  fifteenth  floor,  and  the  speed  is  600  feet  per  minute 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


247 


with  a  load  of  1000  Ibs.     Down  speed  with  2000  Ibs.  is  450 
feet  per  minute.     The  maximum  load  which  can  be  carried 


F.G.   113.  —  HYDRAULIC  ELEVATOR-SHAFT. 

by  each  car  is  2000  Ibs. 

Steam  is  provided  at   110  Ibs.  pressure  per  square  inch. 
The  exhaust  in  summer  is  carried  directly  to  the  roof,  and  in 


248  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

winter  this  exhaust  is  utilized  for  steam-heating  under  the 
Webster  vacuum  system,  running  back-pressure  down  to  not 
exceeding  |  Ib.  above  atmospheric  line. 

The  water-pressure  is  140  Ibs.  per  square  inch,  and  the 
motive  power  consists  of  two  Worthingtor.  pumps  and  one 
small  pump  for  lighter  service;  the  large  pumps  being 

14  x  2O  x  12  x  I  5  in.  and  14  x  22  x  12  x  18  in., 
the  small  pump  10x16x8^x10  in.  The  pumps  are 
arranged  as  shown  by  the  plan  of  machinery-hall,  Fig.  105. 
The  cylinders  of  pumps  are  lagged  with  magnesia  and  cov- 
ered with  Russia  iron,  and  provided  with  drip-cocks  and 
pipes. 

There  are  large  duplicate  storage-tanks  connected  in  such 
a  manner  that  either  or  both  can  be  operated  upon  the  load. 
Each  tank  is  of  the  double-drum  type,  that  is.  a  shell  above  a 
shell,  witli  riveted  connection-necks  12  inches  in  diameter 
flanged  and  riveted  to  shells.  The  tanks  are  4  ft.  3  in.  in 
diameter  and  15  feet  long,  built  of  -jHn.  open-hearth  steel. 

The  discharge-tank  has  a  capacity  of  6000  gallons  and  is 
<>  ft.  6  in.  xu  ft.  x  9  ft.  deep. 

A  \Yestinghouse  duplex  air-compressor  having  cylinders 
~\  y  ^  /  ()  in.  is  mounted  upon  a  column  adjoining  and  con- 
nect ed  complete  to  the  storage-tanks. 

The  elevator-cylinders,  as  will  be  seen  by  the  illustration. 
Fig.  113.  are  vertical,  15  inches  in  diameter;  numbers  I  and 
2  being  45  ft.  9  in.  long  and  numbers  3,  4,  and  5.  43  ft.  (i  in. 
long.  Xumbers  i  and  2  are  longer  on  account  of  extending 
cars  to  basement. 

These  cylinders  are  of  cast  iron,  of  proper  proportion  for 
a  working  pressure  of  150  Ibs.  per  square  inch. 

The  cage  is  of  wrought  iron  with  forged  rods  securely 
braced,  and  supports  a  car  of  cast  iron  and  steel.  See  illus- 
tration. Fig.  136,  ("hap.  X. 


O  FFl  CE-  B  UIL  I)  ING  S. 


249 


CELLAR 


SEC 


Fn;.    114.  —  H  VDK.M  i.n'    ASH-HOIST,   CKNTR.M,   BANK 

SAftTT 

I     Nuit 

Oi 


Fi<;.    115.  —  Hoisnx<;-M'T  KOK   F,i  F<TKIC-KI.KVAT<>R   MACHINK. 


250  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

The  cables  carrying  these  cars  are  four  in  number,  of 
steel,  |  inch  in  diameter,  having  six  strands,  19  wires  to  the 
strand,  and  capable  of  a  safe  load  of  14,000  Ibs.  The  cars  are 
also  provided  with  counterweighing  chains,  slung  free  in  the 
shaft.  The  sheaves  are  of  cast  iron,  40,  42,  47,  and  51  inches 
in  diameter. 

The  freight-elevator,  of  the  steam-drum  type,  has  the 
same  height  lift  as  the  passenger-elevators,  but  is  capable  of 
raising  a  maximum  load  of  6000  Ibs.  Speed  at  a  load  of  1000 
Ibs.,  300  feet  per  minute.  It  has  a  compound  gear  which  can 
be  thrown  in  for  lifting  up  to  6000  Ibs.  weight.  The  cables 
are  two  in  number,  of  steel,  £  inch  in  diameter,  each  having 
six  strands,  19  wires  to  the  strand.  This  car  is  provided  with 
a  hand-rope  control,  while  the  passenger-elevators  have  a 
lever  device.  The  ash-hoist  is  hydraulic,  as  shown  by  the 
detail  drawing,  Fig.  1 14.  The  cylinder  is  of  cast  iron,  sunk 
into  a  well  composed  of  a  wrought-iron  tube  driven  into  the 
ground.  The  plunger  is  of  cold-rolled  steel.  The  workman- 
ship and  materials  throughout  the  work  are  of  the  best,  and 
at  this  writing,  eight  months  after  it  was  first  operated,  the 
plant  is  practically  perfect. 

ELECTRIC  ELEVATORS  OF  LORD'S  COURT  BUILUIXG.— 
The  five  elevator-shafts  as  shown  upon  the  plan  (Fig.  37, 
Chapter  II.)  of  Lord's  Court  Building  are  provided  with 
cars  operated  by  the  horizontal  multiple-sheave  type,  with  a 
travelling  cross-head  and  frictionless  nut  (see  Fig.  115) 
driven  by  a  i-i-inch  pitch-screw,  revolved  by  a  motor  directly 
connected.  The  entire  operative  machinery,  both  electric 
and  mechanical,  is  self-contained,  and  is  placed  in  the  base- 
ment in  two  double-decked  sets  and  one  single  set.  (See 
illustrations.  Figs,  iifiand  117.) 

The  general  dimensions  are  as  follows:  Length  of 
machine  over  all,  28  feet;  height,  3}  by  7  feet;  width,  3.^  feet; 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  251 

sheave-multiplication,  8  and  2;  diameter  of  sheaves,  36  inches 
on  machines;  number  of  hoisting-ropes,  4. 

The  motor  is  of  the  four-pole  type,  and  the  winding  is 
strongly  compounded.  The  carbon  brushes  are  double,  have 
independent  movement  and  ample  capacity  to  call  the  full 
current  under  all  conditions.  The  machine  is  self-oiling,  and 
the  main  bearings  are  accurately  lined.  The  main  brake,  con- 
sists of  an  accurately  turned  flanged  pulley  carried  on  the 
inboard  end  of  the  screw,  which  is  gripped  by  a  wood-lined 
steel  band  anchored  on  one  side  and  continually  pulled  down 
on  the  other  by  a  powerful  spring  under  adjustable  compres- 
sion. This  brake  is  released  on  hoisting  by  the  hoisting-cur- 
rent, and  in  going  down  by  a  special  circuit.  On  failure  of 
current  for  any  reason,  or  when  running  down  at  an  excess  of 
speed,  the  brake  instantly  becomes  operative,  and  whenever 
the  machine  stops  the  brake  is  automatically  locked.  The 
screw  machine  has  a  capacity  to  lift  a  live  load  of  2500  pounds 
exclusive  of  the  excess  of  car  and  cables,  at  400  feet  per  min- 
ute and  a  hoisting  speed  of  500  feet  per  minute  with  the 
average  load,  all  with  a  potential  of  120  volts  at  the  motor 
terminals. 

The  four  ^-inch  lifting-cables  have  a  tensile  strength  of 
17,000  pounds,  with  an  allowed  working  load  of  3200  pounds 
each.  The  regulator  is  operated  by  a  small  electric  motor, 
controlled  by  an  "  up-and-down  "  and  automatic-stop  lever 
or  button,  placed  inside  the  car,  giving  the  operator  full  con- 
trol of  its  speed  and  direction.  The  cars  and  motors  are 
equipped  with  safety-brakes,  automatic  stops,  slack-cable 
devices,  and  all  appliances  necessary  for  the  safe  operation  of 
the  same. 

These  five  machines  are  driven  by  three  direct-connected 
engines  and  dynamos  of  100  KAY.  capacity  and  one  50- KAY. 


252  THE  PLANNING  AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


HIGH  OFFICE'S  UILD  ING  6'. 


253 


254  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

machine,  which  also  supply  the  electric  lighting  for  the  en- 
tire building. 

AIR-CUSHIONS  FOR  ELEVATORS. — There  have  been  sev- 
eral serious  accidents  in  connection  with  the  elevators  in  high 
office-buildings  this  past  year,  some  on  account  of  incom- 
petent operatives  and  others  by  reason  of  imperfect  machin- 
ery. As  the  elevator  is  without  doubt  a  labor-  and  time- 
saving  device  and  positively  necessary  for  the  success  of  the 
building  in  which  it  is  placed,  no  consideration  should  stand 
in  the  way  of  reducing  to  a  minimum  the  element  of  danger. 

The  manufacturers  of  these  machines  declare  that  the 
average  "  elevator-man  "  or  "  elevator-boy  "  is  incapable  of 
properly  operating  them.  Yet  these  complicated  machines 
are  often  placed  in  charge  of  men  or  boys  whose  qualifica- 
tions are  limited  to  a  superficial  acquaintance  with  the  work- 
ing power  and  safety  appliances.  With  respect  to  these 
latter,  each  company  claims  that  its  own  are  the  only  reliable 
ones,  and  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  nearly  all  have  grave  faults. 

The  device  which  with  various  modifications  is  common 
to  most  elevators  is  a  governor  beneath  the  car  and  which, 
operated  by  the  latter,  acts  upon  steel  shoes  that  grip  the 
guides  on  the  side  of  the  shaft.  The  governor  is  set  to  act 
when  the  speed  of  the  car  passes  one  hundred  feet  a  minute 
;;bove  the  safety  limit.  But  a  serious  smash-up  could  occur 
before  reaching  this  rate  of  speed  should  the  car  run  away. 

Another  possible  cause  is  neglect  on  the  side  of  the 
engineer  to  keep  the  parts  properly  cleaned  and  oiled. 

A  scheme  which  is  in  use  in  a  few  buildings  and  has  given 
good  satisfaction  is  an  air-cushion  in  the  bottom  of  the  shaft. 
The  lower  part  of  the  shaft  for  a  distance  of  several  feet  is 
made  air-tight.  When  the  falling  car  drops  into  this  "  tube  " 
the  air  below  is  compressed  and  acts  as  a  cushion,  and  the 
stop  is  made  gradual  by  the  escape  of  the  air  around  the  sides 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  255 

of  the  car.  We  believe  this  is  the  only  safeguard  against 
accidents  from  falling  elevator-cars,  and  a  law  should  be 
passed  making  it  compulsory  for  owners  to  have  such  air- 
cushions  in  the  elevator-shafts  of  their  buildings. 


STEAM-HEATING. 

THE  HEATING  OF  TALL  I>riLnixr,s  \\\  EXHAUST  STEAM. 
—Among  the  many  problems  presented  by  the  increasing 
heights  of  office-buildings,  none  has  thus  far  been  of  a  more 
perplexing  character  than  the  question  of  efficient  circula- 
tion of  steam  for  heating  purposes. 

In  the  older  buildings  of  moderate  height  the  distance  of 
the  furthest  radiator  from  the  source  of  supply  was  not  great 
enough  to  require  much  pressure  to  effect  the  required  cir- 
culation and  to  exude  the  air-gases,  and  therefore  it  was  that 
the  general  use  of  exhaust  steam  for  the  work  came  about. 

The  increase  of  height,  upon  the  introduction  of  tall 
buildings,  was  not  gradual,  but  went  at  a  bound  from  five 
to  fifteen  and  thence  to  twenty  floors  and  upwards,  or,  ex- 
pressing it  in  relative  heights,  from  do  feet  to  JOG  or  250  or 
more. 

Those  who  are  best  acquainted  with  the  theory  and  prac- 
tice of  steam-circulation  foresaw  that  the  result  must  inevi- 
tably be  the  introduction  of  some  means -of  effectively  and 
definitely  aiding  the  natural  power  of  circulation  and  of  re- 
moving the  gases  without  increasing  the  pressure  required: 
and  such  a  development  has  taken  place  in  the  form  of  the 
apparatus  described  below. 

The  first  point  to  be  arrived  at  is  to  avoid  the  imposition 
upon  the  exhaust  or  waste  steam  of  the  engines  or  pumps  of 
any  excess  of  pressure  over  that  of  old  practice:  but  an  ideal 
plant  would  naturally  accomplish  more  than  this,  and  would 


2$6  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

reduce  that  pressure,  commonly  known  as  "  back-pressure," 
to  the  level  of  atmospheric  pressure,  thus  leaving  the  engine 
in  the  same  condition  of  freedom  as  if  its  exhaust  were  being 
freely  delivered  to  the  open  air. 

In  common  practice  the  required  back-pressure  is  ef- 
fected by  a  loaded  retarding  or  "  back-pressure  valve  " 
placed  upon  the  outlet  to  the  atmosphere,  thereby  confining 
the  steam  to  the  system  of  pipes  and  radiators  within  the 
building,  but  capable  of  being  loaded  so  as  to  impose  upon 
the  engines  or  pumps  a  back-pressure  of  such  an  extent  as 
will  suffice  to  impart  the  necessary  velocity  to  the  steam,  in 
order  to  cause  it  to  flow  through  mains  and  branches,  and 
into  radiators  or  coils,  in  sufficient  quantity  to  force  out  gases 
and  provide  for  condensation. 

The  only  means  of  reducing  the  back-pressure  necessary 
for  a  given  installation  of  such  a  description  lay,  under  the 
old  practice,  in  the  increase  of  the  proportions  of  pipes 
throughout,  with  the  result  that,  as  the  length  of  mains  and 
branches  was  increased  by  the  extension  of  the  height  of 
buildings,  the  sizes  of  pipes  were  necessarily  disproportion- 
ately increased.-  greatly  adding  to  the  cost  of  the  plant. 

Various  methods  of  providing  for  the  exudation  of  air- 
gases  was  devised,  the  most  promising  being  that  known  as 
the  "  wet  return."  in  which  the  return-risers  were  so  run  as 
to  maintain  a  water-column  at  the  lowest  point — an  arrange- 
ment often  involving  trenches  or  the  laying  of  pipes,  and 
reducing  the  economy  of  the  system  by  the  lowering  of  tem- 
perature due  to  the  water  always  lying  in  these  pipes. 

The  back-pressure  necessary  under  the  best  proportion- 
ing and  arranging  of  such  systems  is,  in  tall  buildings  and  in 
full  operation,  often  as  much  as  15  pounds  per  square  inch, 
under  which  the  economy  of  engines  and  pumps  is  greatly 
reduced  and  their  demands  for  steam  are  proportionately 


HIGH   OFFICE-BL'ILDIXCS.  2$? 

increased.  The  result  is  forcibly  illustrated  in  such  of  the 
tall  buildings  as  retain  installations  of  this  character. 

In  severe  weather,  far  from  the  entire  exhaust  of  pumps 
and  engines  being  swallowed  up  by  the  heating  system,  it 
will  often  be  seen  emerging  from  the  escape-pipes  in  in- 
creasing quantity  as  the  seventy  of  weather  increases. 
This  effect  is  but  natural:  the  greater  the  demand  of  the 
radiators,  the  greater,  under  these  systems,  the  requirements 
of  back-pressure,  and  the  greater,  consequently,  the  demand 
of  the  pump  for  steam;  the  result  being  that  the  system  be- 
comes overcharged,  and  surplus  is  discharged  to  the  air 
through  the  retarding-valve.  This  increased  demand  for 
steam  due  to  back-pressure  often  imposes  so  great  a  duty  on 
the  engines  that  it  is  more  economical  to  use  live  steam  at 
required  pressure  for  heating,  and  waste  the  exhaust  to  the 
atmosphere. 

Much  that  is  misleading  has  been  written  in  endeavoring 
to  minimize  the  effects  of  back-pressure  in  engines  and 
pump-cylinders;  the  actual  operation  can,  however,  be  read- 
ily appreciated  by  any  one  familiar  with  the  action  of  steam 
within  cylinders;  and  at  whatever  point  the  pressure  and 
back-pressure  stands,  the  disadvantage  of  the  latter  is  rela- 
tive not  merely  to  the  former,  but  to  the  mean  or  average 
pressure  on  the  piston. 

Before  entering  upon  the  details  of  this  subject,  it  may  be 
well  to  describe  briefly,  for  the  sake  of  those  who  arc  un- 
acquainted with  such  matters,  the  theory  of  steam-heating. 
In  the  raising  of  water  from  a  lower  temperature  to  that  of 
the  boiling-point  a  certain  amount  of  heat  is  required,  but 
much  more  heat  is  necessary  to  evaporate  the  boiling  water 
into  steam.  In  point  of  fact,  there  is  required  to  heat 
freezing  water  to  a  boiling  temperature  only  one  fifth  of  the 
heat  required  to  turn  the  same  boiling  water  into  steam. 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

The  steam  may  and  will  be  of  only  the  same  actual  tempera- 
ture as  the  boiling  water,  that  is  to  say,  212  degrees  Fahren- 
heit, but  the  heat  is  demanded  by  the  act  of  evaporation  or 
liberation  of  the  vapor. 

It  is  now  general  scientific  practice  to  express  the  values 
of  heat  in  heat-units,  one  such  unit  being,  in  American  and 
English  practice,  that  amount  of  heat  which  is  absorbed  by  a 
pound  of  water  raised  in  temperature  one  degree  Fahren- 
heit—the convenience  resulting  from  this  simple  method 
being  readily  apparent.  Expressed  in  this  manner,  the  num- 
ber of  heat-units  absorbed  by  a  pound  of  boiling  water  raised 
from  freezing-point  is  180,  all  of  which  can  be  traced  by  ther- 
mometer and  is  therefore  known  as  sensible  heat,  while  the 
number  of  heat-units  absorbed  by  the  same  pound  of  water 
liberated  into  steam  is  nearly  965,  which  is  described  as 
"  latent  "  heat  since  it  does  not  affect  the  temperature  and  is 
not  measurable  by  thermometer.  To  raise  the  steam  to  a 
working  pressure  for  engines  or  pumps  requires  a  still 
further  addition  of  heat,  which  is  also  measurable,  and  is 
parted  with  by  the  steam  during  its  work  in  the  engine  or 
pump,  the  exhaust  or  waste  emerging  properly  at  atmos- 
pheric pressure  and  containing  then  the  latent  heat  as  well 
as  the  sensible  heat  of  180  degrees  per  pound  previously  re- 
ferred to. 

It  is  the  latent  heat.  then,  that  is  parted  with  by  the 
steam  in  the  operation  of  warming  a  radiator  or  pipe,  with 
the  result  that,  as  soon  as  it  is  parted  with,  the  vapor  again 
becomes  water,  at  or  near  boiling  temperature,  or.  in  other 
words,  is  condensed.  In  such  a  form  it  is  still  of  value  as 
compared  with  cold  water  for  feeding  the  boiler. 

An  ideal  heating  plant  would  therefore  be  one  in  which 
the  steam  of  any  given  working  pressure  is  utilized  first  in 
operating  engines  and  pumps,  emerging  freely  from  the  ex- 


///(/'//    OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  259 

haust  of  same,  and  being  then  fully  utilized  in  radiators  till 
its  latent  heat  has  been  parted  with  in  the  work  of  warming 
rooms,  leaving  it  in  the  form  of  condensed  hot  water  to  be 
returned  to  the  boiler  for  re-evaporation.  The  nearer  this 
ideal  condition  can  be  attained  in  practice  the  more  economi- 
cal the  heating  system  will  become. 

There  is  another  feature  which  comes  into  active  opera- 
tion during  this  process,  and  which  is  the  cause  of  most  of 
the  difficulty  presented  in  practice.  All  water  contains  air 
with  more  or  less  impurities  which,  mingling  with  the  steam 
in  the  boiler,  retard  the  action  of  evaporation,  absorb  some 
of  the  heat,  become  dissociated  into  various  noxious  gases 
which  are  carried  away  mechanically  by  the  rush  of  steam, 
lodge  in  the  pipes  at  ends,  turns,  and  bends,  and  prevent  the 
sfeam  from  reaching  those  points. 

The  removal  of  this  air  or  gas  is  thus  of  the  first  neces- 
sity, and  the  devices  known  as  air-valves  are  designed  for 
this  purpose.  They  afford  a  minute  opening  for  the  exit  of 
the  air.  which  closes  up  on  the  approach  of  steam.  The  air 
must  be  pressed  upon  by  the  steam  to  find  an  exit  by  this 
means,  and  thus  the  indirect  effect  of  the  pressure  of  air- 
gases  is  to  demand  a  pressure  of  steam  for  heating  work, 
which  would  otherwise  be  unnecessary. 

The  air-gases  emitted  into  rooms  have  an  unpleasant 
odor,  and  a  special  line  of  pipes  for  their  eventual  conduc- 
tion to  some  vent  or  sewer  is  thus  rendered  necessary. 

L'nder  the  improved  apparatus  presently  to  be  described 
it  will  be  seen  how  this  problem  is  dealt  with.  The  removal 
of  the  air-gases  leaves  the  condensed  water  in  the  form 
known  as  "distilled,"  when  it  is  free  from  gases,  but  is  so 
far  reduced  in  quantity  that  an  addition  of  extra  water  is  al- 
ways required  to  make  up  its  bulk  to  the  normal  rate  of  con- 
sumption. 


260  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

This  additional  water,  known  in  condensing  plants  and  in 
marine  practice  as  the  "  make-up,"  is  an  element  liable  to 
disturb  the  whole  economy  of  the  cycle  of  operation  by  the 
air  entrained  in  the  water,  and  also  by  difference  in  tempera- 
ture unless  its  temperature  be  raised  previous  to  its  entry 
to  the  system  by  means  of  some  waste  heat  or,  preferably, 
by  mingling  with  it  some  small  portion  of  steam  the  full 
value  of  which  may  thus  be  conserved. 

To  reduce  back-pressure  to  a  minimum,  to  reduce  also 
the  sizes  of  pipes  required  for  a  given  circulation,  to  remove 
automatically  and  effectively  the  air-gases,  as  well  as  to  re- 
turn promptly  the  water  of  condensation  with  the  least  pos- 
sible delay  and  loss  of  heat,  and  to  do  all  without  noise,  form 
the  general  problem  of  the  heating  of  tall  buildings.  This 
problem  is  effectively  solved  by  the  \Yebster  system,  now  to- 
be  described. 

The  system  provides  a  complete  and  automatic  flexi- 
bility of  circulation,  so  that  the  maximum  supply  may 
be  applied  at  one  portion  of  the  pipes,  and  a  lesser  amount 
or  none,  as  may  be  desired,  at  other  portions. 

Thus  the  exposed  side  of  the  buildings  draws  naturally 
the  largest  supply,  and  offers  no  difficulty  from  surcharged 
return-pipes  in  so  doing;  while  a  distribution  of  less  steam 
to  another  portion  may  be  taking  place,  and  a  more  moder- 
ate heating  effect  produced  there. 

The  \Yebster  system  comprises  primarily  an  automatic 
outlet-valve  to  each  part  requiring  drainage,  a  connecting 
system  of  return-pipes  to  a  suction  apparatus,  such  as  a 
pump  or  an  ejector,  the  positive  abstraction  by  this  means 
of  all  air-gases  from  the  heating  system,  and  the  return  of  the 
condensed  water  into  a  heater  wherein  the  water  and  gases 
freely  dissociate  in  a  chamber  sealed  from  the  atmosphere, 
and  where  the  temperature  of  the  condensed  water  plus  that 


HHiH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  26 1 

of  any  .additional  fresh  supply  found  to  he  necessary  is  raised 
by  direct  contact  with  a  proportional  amount  of  exhaust  or 
waste  steam,  and  finally  the  return  of  the  whole  automati- 
cally to  the  boiler. 

The  operation  of  this  apparatus  can  be  brought  to  any 
degree  of  automatic  regulation;  its  control  is  entirely  in  the 
engineer's  or  fireman's  discretion,  while  leaving  the  control 
of  each  individual  radiator  or  coil  absolutely  in  the  hands 
of  the  tenant,  or  occupant,  by  means  of  one  inlet  hand-valve 
only  to  each  such  radiator  or  coil,  the  outlet-valve  being 
automatic. 

A  remarkable  result  due  to  this  arrangement  is  the  ability 
to  reduce  the  total  temperature  of  any  separate  coil  or  radi- 
ator by  reducing  the  amount  of  steam  admitted  to  it  without 
waterlogging  or  hammering,  a  result  unknown  with  any 
other  combination  of  steam-heating  apparatus. 

This  is  done  at  will  by  closing  down  on  the  inlet-supply 
to  the  desired  degree.  The  result  is  the  admission  of  a 
smaller  amount  of  steam  to  the  coil  than  it  is  calculated  to 
condense  normally,  or,  in  other  words,  less  steam  is  delivered 
than  suffices  to  fill  the  radiator  at  atmospheric  pressure,  and 
consequently  steam  enters  as  a  tenuous  vapor,  finding  no 
obstruction  from  air-gases,  and  affording  a  moderated  tem- 
perature capable  of  graduation  down  to  that  just  above  the 
atmosphere  surrounding  the  radiator,  and  precisely  in  pro- 
portion to  the  heat-units  liberated  from  the  quantity  of  steam 
admitted.  In  this  is  to  be  found  that  much-sought  desid- 
eratum, of  steam-heating  engineers,  the  moderation  of  heat- 
ing to  suit  mild  weather. 

The  diagrams  presented  herewith  illustrate  the  application 
of  the  \Yebster  apparatus  in  the  Central  Bank  Building;  its 
flexibility  to  other  conditions  will  be  at  once  apparent. 

The  preferred  arrangement  consists  primarily  of  a  ther- 


262 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


mostatic  valve,  which  is  shown  in  enlarged  section  in  Figs. 
1 1 8,  119,  and  contains  a  stalk  or  stem  of  hard-rubber  com- 
pound which  expands  rapidly  under  increasing  temperatures. 


FIGURE    1 


FIGURE  3 


FIGURE    2 

FK;     1 1  >.  —  'In  EKMOSTATH:   VALVES  OK  'inn  WEBSTER   SYSTEM. 

The  seat,  which  is  the  outlet,  is  arranged  for  read}'  adjust- 
ment by  a  screw-driver.  It  is  capable  of  being  set  so  that  it 
will  open  at  any  required  degree  of  temperature.  In  opera- 


Fir;     TIQ.  —  ANOTHER  VALVE  OK  THE  WEBSTER   SYSTEM. 

tion  it  is  practically  closed  while  steam  is  in  the  coil  and  in 
contact  with  the  stalk,  but  as  soon  as  condensation  collects 
around  it  the  stem  shortens  and  opens  the  aperture  to  the 
return-pipes,  in  which  a  suction  or  partial  vacuum  is  main- 
tained by  an  air-pump  connected  to  main  return,  from  which 


HIGH   OF  I-  1CE-B  UILDING  S. 


263 


the  condensed  water  and  the  air-gases  are  drawn  out,  the 
stalk  again  lengthening  and  closing  the  aperture  as  soon  as 
steam  reaches  it. 

The  thermostatic  value  is  placed  at  the  point  of  drainage 
of  the  coil  or  radiator,  as  shown  in  Fig.  120.  One  of  the 
standard  size  adopted  is  capable  of  draining  upwards  of  200 
square  feet  of  surface  in  active  condensation.  In  he  same 
or  another  form  it  is  applied  to  the  foot  of  riser-pipes  as 
shown  in  Fig.  1 18,  to  the  ends  of  horizontal  lines,  to  changes 
of  size  of  pipes,  and  in  fact  to  any  desired  point  where  con- 
densation is  liable  to  collect. 

Heavy  condensation  of  any  part  can  be  dealt  with  by 
multiplying  the  number  of  thermostatic  valves  at  that  point 

The  valve  is  so  placed  that  dirt  and  scale  in  the  pipes  do 


I'll,.    120.  —  TllK     Tlll'-.KMOST.vrir     Vu.VKS     IN    CO.NNKCTION     WITH     R  A  Ul  A  1  <  >K>. 

not  fall  into  it  direct  and  choke  its  inlet,  as  provided  for  by 
the  drop-leg  shown  in  Fig.  i  iS.  Its  form  is,  however,  such 
as  will  allow  for  a  certain  amount  of  sediment  to  deposit 
around  the  stalk,  which  is  protected  by  a  perforated  screen  of 
simple  character.  In  Fig.  120  is  shown  a  return-line  by 
which  the  condensed  water  is  lifted  by  the  action  of  the  suc- 
tion from  the  bottom  of  the  right-hand  coil. 

Proceeding  now  to  the  arrangements  illustrated   in   the 


264 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


diagram,  Fig.  121,  which  illustrates  the  basement,  engine- 
room,  or  boiler-room,  a  return-pump  is  shown  which  is  a 
direct-acting  "  wet-vacuum  "  pump,  and  is  regulated  to  main- 


tain  a  constant  amount  of  suction,  by  means  of  a  pump-gov- 
ernor of  special  design,  operated  by  the  action  of  the  suction 
on  a  diaphragm.  This  governor  is  shown  connected  in  the 
line  of  steam-supply  to  the  vacuum-pump. 

The  return-pipes  being  united  and  brought  to  the  pump, 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS  265 

it  is  set  to  receive  the  condensation  and  to  exert  an  extra 
suction  of  from  one  to  fifteen  inches  of  mercury,  according  to 
requirements.  A  pump  for  a  radiating  surface  of  20,000 
square  feet  has  a  steam  end  six  inches  in  diameter  and  will 
make  about  sixty  feet  piston-speed  per  minute.  Its  exhaust  is 
taken  into  the  heating-main,  and  it  is  thus  operated  merely  as 
a  reducing-valve,  or  it  may  be  taken  direct  to  the  feed-water 
heater  and  there  condensed. 

The  delivery  of  the  hot  returns  can  be  effected  in  more 
than  one  manner.  The  best  system  has  been  found  to  be  to 
deliver  the  whole  into  an  overhead  "  hot-well  "  or  return- 
receiver  as  shown,  from  which  free  egress  for  the  air  and 
vapors  can  be  afforded  to  the  atmosphere  and  time  allowed 
for  the  separation  to  effect  itself  thoroughly.  From  the 
receiver  the  hot  water,  freed  of  air-gases  by  the  vertical  relief- 
pipe,  gravitates  to  the  feed-water  heater. 

The  make-up  water  is  dealt  with  by  its  introduction  into 
the  system  at  a  point  where  it  may  be  made  of  most  effective 
use.  It  is  connected  to  a  small  jet  in  the  return-pipe  at  its 
point  of  connection  to  the  vacuum-pump.  Here  it  condenses 
the  air-gases  as  they  are  drawn  towards  the  pump,  imparting 
its  velocity  to  them  and  aiding  the  action  of  the  pump.  It 
may,  if  not  required  on  this  service,  be  diverted  to  the  over- 
head receiver,  there  mingling  with  the  returns,  or  it  may  be 
passed  direct  into  the  feed-heater,  and  in  ail  cases  it  is  con- 
trollable at  the  discretion  of  the  fireman,  who  has  thus  under 
his  hand  the  extent  of  total  feed-water  returning  to  the  boiler. 

The  \Yebster  feed-heater,  an  illustration  of  which,  show- 
ing the  interior  apparatus,  is  annexed  (Fig.  uj).  is  an 
integral  portion  of  the  cycle  of  operation  in  the  heating  sys- 
tem, and  is  practically  one  unit  of  the  radiating  surface,  pro- 
portioned to  receive  the  condensation  of  all  other  surfaces,  to 
mingle  with  them  some  steam  drawn  for  the  purpose  from 


266 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


the  general  supply,  and  finally  to  be  continuously  relieved  by 
the  feed-pumps. 

It  enacts  precisely  the  part  of  the  digestive  organs  of  the 


Fu;.    122.  —  INTERIOR  VIKW  OF  THE  WKHSTER   FEED-HEATER. 

human  system,  receiving  the  alimentary  materials,  reducing 
them  to  the  necessary  conditions  of  reception  by  the  organs, 
discharging  the  surplus  as  well  as  the  deleterious  and  waste 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  267 

products,  and  delivering  the  required  total  in  the  best  possi- 
ble condition  for  reuse. 

Referring-  both  to  the  illustration  and  to  Fig.  i?i.  it  will 
be  seen  that  it  is  only  to  be  described  as  of  the  "  open  "  type 
of  feed-heater,  in  so  far  as  that  a  portion  of  the  waste  or 
exhaust  steam  is  brought  into  actual  contact  with,  and  is 
condensed  by,  the  feed-water  proper. 

It  consists  of  a  closed  or  sealed  chamber,  rectangular  in 
form,  provided  with  an  upper  inlet  for  the  feed-supply,  which 
may  be  hot  returns  or  cold  water  or  both,  and  an  inlet  for 
steam  provided  with  an  independent  oil-separator  or  grease- 
extractor,  operating  upon  the  steam  previous  to  its  entry  to 
the  interior.  Upon  entering,  the  steam  encounters  a  set  of 
oppositely  inclined  and  perforated  trays  of  copper  sheet,  over 
which  the  feed-water  from  above  is  spread  and  percolates  in 
a  very  finely  divided  condition,  inviting  most  effectively  the 
absorption  of  heat  from  the  ascending  steam-particles.  Am 
vapor  or  gases  from  the  entering  steam  that  escape  the  con- 
densation of  this  process  encounter  above  the  upper  tray  a 
coil  of  parallel  brass  tubes  through  which  the  entering  feed- 
water  passes  on  its  way  to  the  trays. 

The  effect  is  thoroughly  to  condense  such  gases  or  vapors 
and  leave  them  in  condition  readv  for  removal  bv  the  air-pipe 
provided,  which  may  be  treated,  as  shown,  by  connection 
through  a  thermostatic  valve  into  the  \Vebster  system,  or 
may  vent  to  the  atmosphere.  The  body  of  reheated  water, 
accumulating  in  the  lower  portion  of  the  heater,  affords  a  de- 
sirable opportunity  for  the  settlement  of  solids,  to  be  drawn 
off  by  the  inclined  bottom  and  drain-pipe  below,  and  is  also 
provided  with  an  outlet  above  the  water-surface  to  take  ott 
floating  scum  or  impurities  of  light  specific  gravity. 

The  outlet  to  the  feed-pump  is  provided  under  a  plate 
hood  extending  down  into  the  bodv  of  water  and  excluding 


268  THE    PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

the  surface  impurities.  Upon  the  normal  water-surface  is 
arranged  a  copper  float-box,  operating,  through  the  only 
exterior  gland,  a  lever,  which  may  be  arranged  as  shown  to 
control  the  steam-supply  to  the  feed-pump.  The  feed-water 
heater  thus  raises  the  temperature  of  returns  combined  with 
the  make-up  or  cold  feed,  together  with  the  condensation  of 
the  radiators,  to  the  full  temperature  due  to  contact  with  the 
steam  admitted,  bringing  the  net  result  of  the  cycle  of  opera- 
tion to  the  utmost  possible  utilization  of  the  heat-units  in  the 
steam  taken  for  the  duty. 

Returning  again  to  the  question  of  circulation,  it  is  an 
interesting  result  of  the  system  that  with  any  given  amount 
of  steam  supplied  to  the  pipes  the  distribution  is  equable  and 
controllable. 

As  the  operation  of  circulation  is  not  dependent  on  any 
pressure  above  the  atmosphere,  but  is  free  to  take  place  with- 
out obstruction  of  air  or  of  condensation,  and  the  speed  of  cir- 
culation is  increased  by  initial  How  of  steam  at  or  about 
atmospheric  pressure  into  radiators  where,  when  requiring 
the  maximum  supply  of  steam,  the  pressure  is  considerably 
below  the  atmosphere,  the  pipe  system  even  if  of  only  mod- 
erately proportioned  size  is  placed  in  its  most  effective  con- 
dition, and  the  speed  of  the  circulation  is  proportionately 
increased.  Thus  not  only  can  much  more  steam  be  circulated 
through  any  given  size  of  heat-supply  pipes,  but  any  degree 
of  attenuated  steam-vapor  down  to  the  point  of  partial 
vacuum  reached  by  the  suction  or  vacuum  pump.  The  result 
is  that  pipes  of  smaller  diameter  both  for  heat  supply  and 
returns  can  be  installed  than  with  any  form  of  gravity  system. 

Experiment  has  shown  that  a  thermostatic  valve  having 
connections  of  an  area  of  . i  square  inch,  or  equivalent  to  a 
standard  pipe  of  J  inch  diameter,  will  convey  the  condensa- 
tion and  vapor  from  300  square  feet  of  radiating  surface.  So 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  269 

small  a  pipe  is,  it  is  true,  inadvisable  in  steam  practice,  merely 
on  account  of  its  liability  to  damage,  and  it  has  therefore 
been  usual  to  connect  each  thermostatic  valve  by  ^-inch  pipe. 
This  size  may,  in  exposed  or  long  horizontal  lines,  be  still 
further  increased  to  ^-inch  diameter,  but  additions  thereto 
as  other  return  connections  are  brought  into  it  need  only  to 
be  made  in  the  original  proportion  of  .1  square  inch  to,  say, 
each  100  square  feet  of  surface. 

The  accompanying  comparative  table  of  returns  on  both 
systems  will  show  that  quite  a  considerable  economy  is  to  be 
effected  in  this  way  over  a  two-pipe  gravity  system,  and  of 
course  no  air-gas  pipes  or  air-valves  are  needed  at  all. 

In  a  large  modern  office-building  in  which  the  riser-lines 
are  very  extensive  the  economy  is  very  considerable,  as  may 
be  seen  by  the  following  table: 

CoMi'AKA TIVK   PROPORTIONS  OK   RKTTRN    Pirns   IN    WKHSTKK  AND  GRAVITY 

SYSTEMS. 


Vacuum  Return. 

Vacuum 

Heat. 

Gravity  Heat. 

Gravity  Return. 

IOO  sq. 

ft. 

IOO  sq.  ft. 

•i" 

I  ' 

ij' 

i" 

IOO 

IOO    . 

A 

1  1 

I  A 

j  i 

IOO 

IOO 

A 

I-J 

2 

IOO 

IOO 

I 

i  A 

2 

i  A 

IOO 

ICO 

3 

2 

2  A 

o 

IOO 

ico 

i 

2 

2.1 

o 

IOO 

ioo 

i 

2 

3 

2  A 

IOO 

IOO 

i 

2A 

3 

2A 

IOO 

IOO 

One  practical  and  very  remarkable  feature  of  this  system 
must  be  noted.  It  is  quite  practicable  to  operate  the  returns 
from  radiators  situated  below  the  floor  of  the  engine-room  or 
below  the  level  of  the  return-pump,  or  to  lift  the  drainage  of 
any  given  portion  to  quite  a  considerable  extent. 

The    partial    vacuum    maintained    and    which    extends 


2/O  THE    PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

through  the  return  system  will  handle  a  much  greater  height 
of  return  than  its  theoretical  value  in  inches  of  water. 

-The  effect  is  doubtless  due  to  the  sweeping  action  of  the 
removal  of  vapors  with  the  condensation  in  the  same  pipe. 
No  other  means  exist  of  solving  this  problem,  and  its  practi- 
cability is  a  great  convenience  in  many  buildings. 

The  uncertainties  and  irregularities  of  steam-heating  are 
by  this  apparatus  largely  disposed  of.  and  its  adoption  insures 
to  the  heating  engineer  a  certainty  of  circulation,  of  drainage, 
of  absence  of  noise,  and  of  efficient  return  of  heat  to  the 
boiler,  which  removes  a  great  deal  of  responsibility  and  anx- 
iety as  to  results. 

Exposed  particular  portions  of  the  system  can  be  pro- 
vided with  extra  circulating  facility,  with  or  without  reduc- 
tion at  any  other  part.  Xo  necessity  exists  for  that  special 
cMid  nice  proportioning  of  supply  and  return  lines  which 
demands  such  certain  and  careful  calculation  and  forethought 
in  a  gravity  plant. 

Old  and  inefficient  systems  can  be  made  efficient,  and 
those  in  which  extreme  back-pressure  has  been  necessary  can 
be  reduced  to  economical  conditions. 

All  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  system  operates  by 
those  natural  laws  which  experience  has  shown  to  control  the 
work  of  steam  in  circulation  and  condensation;  laws  which 
have  long  been  recognized  and  successfully  utilized  in  steam- 
engine  practice,  and  which  demand  equal  consideration  by 
heating  engineers. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  TIN-:  HEATING  AND  POWER  PLANT  IN 
THE  CENTRAL  NATIONAL  BANK. — The  general  arrangement 
employed  is  a  single-supply  and  single-return  system  of  fif- 
teen lines  of  risers  from  mains  carried  around  the  sub-base- 
ment ceiling,  the  risers  being  laid  along  the  lines  of  radiators 
with  tee  and  cross  connection  beneath  the  finished  floors. 


HIGH    OFJ-'IL'E-HL'ILDIXGS.  ?7l 

rriie  connecting'  branches  to  each  radiator  are  laid  with 
spring-bend  and  union  joints  so  as  to  avoid  any  movement 
by  the  radiator  by  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  pipes. 
Chases  are  provided  in  the  walls  for  the  risers.  The  system  is 
operated  on  the  Webster  combination  vacuum  plan  as  pre- 
viously described. 

The  steam-heat  main  for  house-supply  is  a  6-in. -diameter 
pipe,  extending  around  the  entire  subbasement,  to  which  the 
above  fifteen  lines  are  connected.  This  main  is  carried  about 
i  foot  from  the  ceiling  and  supported  by  expansion  hangers. 
The  vertical  lines  are  of  first-quality  wrought  iron  with 
screwed  connections,  each  riser  line  being  supplied  with  a 
screw-down  valve  at  foot  and  a  drop-leg  of  full-size  pipe  at 
bottom,  with  tee  and  Webster  thermostatic  valve  and  con- 
nection into  return-line  from  same. 

The  return-lines  commence  within  i  in.  of  each  radiator 
and  so  continue,  as  shown  in  table  of  comparative  proportions 
of  return-pipes  in  both  systems,  as  heretofore  mentioned. 
The  radiators  are  of  the  Bundy  pattern  and  425  in  number. 

The  radiators  in  the  bank  are  placed  in  niches,  and  have 
an  outlet  from  the  outer  air  so  that  fresh  air  is  supplied  to 
the  room  through  tines  controlled  by  dampers;  the  vitiated 
air  being  carried  to  a  vent-fine  and  out  through  the  roof. 

The  Stcciin-poii'cr  Suf>f>/\. — 'I  he  steam-power  consists  in 
supplying  steam  from  the  boilers  to  the  engine  and  pumps 
through  long-bend  fittings  from  the  outlet-valves  of  each 
boiler  to  the  main  steam-pipe,  which  is  of  wrought  iron  10 
inches  in  diameter,  of  best  lap-welded  quality,  screwed  into 
wronght-iron  flanges.  From  the  mo-II.P.  boiler  the  pipe  is 
5  inches  diameter,  from  the  140-!!. P.  o  inches,  and  from  the 
22O-11.P.  S  inches.  The  main  stop-valve  just  beyond  the  !a-t 
boiler-connection  is  a  in-inch  Xelson  double-seated  high- 
pressure  screw-down  yoke-pattern  valve. 


272  THE  PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

The  io-inch  steam-supply  pipe  extends  into  engine-room, 
supported  from  the  floor  and  not  from  the  ceiling,  and  from 
it  are  led  long-bend  pipe-branches  to  the  engines  and 
pumps.  These  connections  are  carried  from  the  top  and 
provided  with  angle-valves.  The  pipes  leading  to  the 
compound  pumps  are  4  inches  in  diameter,  those  leading  to 
the  two  large  engines  6  and  5  inches  respectively,  and  that  to 
the  small  engine  3  inches. 

The  exhaust-pipes  from  these  are  for  the  two  compound 
pumps  3  inches  diameter,  the  two  large  engines  8  and  6 
inches  respectively,  and  the  small  engine  4  inches. 

The  main  exhaust  is  10  inches  in  diameter  and  is  placed 
in  a  ditch  underneath  the  floor,  and  rises  in  boiler-room  near 
pump-bench.  In  order  to  drain  the  pipe  underground  a  Y, 
connecting  to  feed-heater,  6  inches  in  diameter  with  a  6-inch 
full-way  gate,  is  provided. 

On  line  of  main  exhaust  there  is  provided  one  exhaust- 
drum  2  ft.  ()  in.  by  5  ft.,  built  of  ]-inch  steel  plate,  with  dished 
heads,  with  an  internal  coil  composed  of  brass  pipe  with 
return  bends  and  baffle-plates  removable  through  lid,  and 
with  two  cleaning  hand-holes  and  lids,  a  ii-inch  drain-pipe, 
and  screw-down  gate,  extended  and  connected  to  drain-tank. 

A  io-inch  Crane  back-pressure  valve  is  placed  in  line  of 
main  exhaust  to  vent.  The  waste  exhaust-pipe,  10  inches  in 
diameter,  is  continued  and  carried  to  the  roof,  while  the  heel 
is  tapped  for  a  i  ./-inch  drip-pipe  and  fitted  with  a  screw- 
down  valve  of  Jenkins  Brothers'  make  with  "  Diamond  " 
trade-mark;  the  pipe  being  led  back  and  connected  to  feed- 
heater  with  a  swing  check-connection.  The  top  of  exhaust- 
pipe  has  a  special  exhaust-head  or  condenser  as  shown  by 
the  illustration.  Fig.  123.  The  drip  is  carried  through  a 
i -inch  pipe  down  to  the  boiler-room  and  then  to  the  feed- 
heater. 


HIGH  OfFICE-B  UILDINGS. 


273 


Blow-off  connections  are  provided  from  the  boilers  to  the 
drip-tank,  also  drips  from  oil-separator;  and  from  the  tank  a 


FIG.   123.  —  AN    IMPROVED   STKAM-CONDKNSEK   ON   ROOF. 

2-inch  vapor-line  extends  to  the  roof;  also  from  this  tank 
a  drain-pump  discharges  into  the  sewer-line.  The  blow-off 
pipes  of  boilers  are  respectively  2  and  2i-  inches  for  the  two 


2/4  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

smaller  and  for  the  larger.  The  feed-pipes  are  i|,  \\,  and  2 
inches,  respectively. 

Pumping  Service  in  flic  Central  Bank  Building. — The 
pumping  service  includes  the  following  : 

Two  pumps  for  feeding  boilers; 
One  pump  from  tank  to  sewer-outlet; 
One  pump  for  house  water-supply; 
One  fire-pump. 

These  are  in  addition  to  those  pertaining  to  the  Webster 
system  and  those  required  for  elevators. 

The  boiler  feed-pumps  are  of  the  Deane  duplex-piston 
pattern,  6x4x6  inches,  with  composition  piston-rods,  and 
fitted  up  complete.  The  drain-pump  is  similar.  The  house- 
supply  pump  is  of  like  make,  but  having  brass  plungers  and 
rods,  with  /-i-inch  steam-cylinders,  4-!— inch  water-ends,  and 
o-inch  stroke.  The  fire-pump  is  of  the  same  pattern,  with 
cylinders  10x6x10  inches  with  brass  plungers  and  rods, 
extra-large  air-vessel,  and  water-pressure  gauge  to  250  Ibs. 

A  SYSTKM  OF  TEMPERATURE  REGULATION  IN  OFFICE- 
HUILDINGS. — The  installation  of  a  system  of  heating  in  an 
office-building  is  alwavs  accompanied  by  a  guarantee  to 
warm  all  rooms  to  seventy  degrees  even  during  the  winter 
months,  when  the  out-door  thermometer  registers  ten  or 
twenty  below  xero. 

I'nder  this  guarantee,  the  rooms  in  all  exposed  corners 
cannot  be  kept  at  a  proper  temperature  without  subjecting, 
at  the  same  time,  the  more  protected  portions  to  excessive 
heat.  What  follows  ?  Fuel-waste  and  an  unhealthfnl  and 
debilitating  effect  upon  the  occupants.  Then,  again,  the 
most  watchful  janitor  or  engineer  is  unable  to  insure  an  even 
temperature  in  all  the  rooms  at  all  times.  Therefore,  sys- 
tematic regulation  of  the  temperature,  placing  artificial 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS. 


275 


FK;.  124. — THF.KMOSTAT  FOR   Ti  M  C\-.K.\  i TKK  REC.IM.ATION. 


2/6  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

warming  of  an  office-building  upon  an  economic  and  sani- 
tary basis,  is  to  be  commended.  We  herewith  present  the 
system  as  used  in  the  Central  Bank  Building. 

A  thermostat  (see  Fig.  124)  is  placed  in  each  room  or 
place  to  be  controlled.  It  consists  of  a  compound  strip, 
made  of  brass  and  steel,  and  a  small  double  valve.  It  is  pro- 
vided with  an  index,  whereby  it  is  set  to  operate  at  any  rea- 
sonable temperature,  and  can  be  so  accurately  adjusted  that 


FIG.  125. — THERMOSTATIC  VALVE  FOR  TEMPERATURE  REGULATION. 

it  will  operate  on  a  variation  in  temperature  of  one  degree. 
The  thermometer  on  the  face  is  merely  for  the  purpose  of 
showing  the  temperature  and  testing  the  accuracy  of  the 
regulation. 

The  compound  strip  of  brass  and  steel  contracts  and  ex- 
pands as  the  temperature  rises  and  falls,  opening  and  closing 
the  valve.  This  controls  the  flow  of  compressed  air,  through 
a  system  of  concealed  pipes,  to  or  from  the  valves  or  dampers 
at  the  source  of  heat  to  be  controlled. 


UK; ii  oi-f-icK-BciLDiNGs.  277 

The  air-compressor  is  run  1>y  steam-pressure,  and,  being 
very  simple,  requires  very  little  attention,  it  automatically 
starts  when  the  air-pressure  gets  below  a  fixed  limit,  and 
stops  when  it  reaches  that  limit,  thus  keeping  the  pressure 
uniform. 

The  admission  of  steam  to  the  radiators  is  controlled  by  a 
diaphragm- valve  (see  Fig.  125).  The  large  umbrella-like  top 
is  provided  with  a  flexible  diaphragm.  When  the  action  of 
the  compound  strip  opens  the  double  valve  in  the  thermo- 
stat, the  compressed  air  enters  the  top  above  the  diaphragm 
and  closes  the  valve,  thereby  cutting  off  the  supply.  When 
the  room  is  cooled  a  degree  or  so.  the  action  of  the  thermo- 
stat is  renewed,  the  How  of  compressed  air  is  cut  oft.  while 
that  within  the  diaphragm-chamber  of  the  valve  escapes,  al- 
lowing it  to  open  again,  admitting  the  steam  to  the  radiator. 

\\  hile  radiators  are  usually  placed  under  outside  win- 
dows and  in  cold  places,  it  is  very  important  that  they  work- 
in  conjunction  with  the  thermostats.  We  have  frequently 
had  occasion  to  change  the  location  of  these  thermostats  on 
account  of  dividing  large  rooms  by  partitions,  so  that  thev 
may  be  in  the  same  room  as  the  radiators.  For  large 
rooms,  banking-rooms  and  auditoriums,  the  "Johnson" 
system  works  admirably. 

REFRIGERATING  APPARATTS  AND  SYSTKM  OF  COOI.IM; 
DRIXKIXG-WATER. — The  common  method  of  supplying 
water  to  a  large  modern  building,  so  tall  that  water  will  not 
How  freely  to  the  upper  floors  from  the  pressure  in  the  street- 
mains,  is  to  pump  the  water  to  a  tank  on  the  roof,  or  by  the 
pressure-drum  system.  From  this  common  source  of  sup- 
ply water  is  taken  for  drinking  and  for  the  various  uses  for 
which  it  is  required. 

With  the  system  described  below  (which  w;as  used  in  sev- 


278 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


eral  tall  office-building's  of  this  city,  namely,  the  American 
Tract  Society,  the  Bowling  Green,  and  the  Metropolitan 
Life  Insurance  buildings),  the  regular  supply  of  drinking- 


AIRCMAMBCIl 


I 

33  RD  FLOOR 

2OTH 

:6TH 

12  TH                        . 

8TH 

4.TH 

1ST 

BASEMENT 

*'                 ""  —  *  WAS1 

HETURD    PIPC 

MA! 

<                                         " 

~i       r**  ^ 

~       TANK,  CONDENSER  C 
5    AMMONIA  RECEIVER,   ETC 

a 
1 

T> 

In 

a 


FILTERS  POMP  SEPARATOR 

Fill.      I2f).  — (iKNKRAI.    A  R  RANI  1K.M  KNT     OK     THK     S/VXITARY      I)  R  I  N  K  INC.-WATKR 

SVSIEM   IN   A    HIGH   OKFICE-BUILDI.M;. 

water  taken  from  the  street-mains  is  cooled  to  the  desired 
point  without  the  slightest  possibility  of  receiving  any  im- 
purity. The  illustration.  Fig.  i  2(>,  shows  clearly  the  genera! 
arrangement  of  the  plant  as  supplied  in  the  above  buildings. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  279 

The  system  includes  an  ammonia  compressor.  Fig.  127. 
in  which  anhydrous  ammonia-gas  is  compressed.  The  com- 
pressed gas  is  then  cooled,  and  condensed  in  a  condenser, 
and  when  the  pressure  is  subsequently  relieved  the  ammonia, 
in  expanding,  absorbs  heat  from  any  surrounding  substance, 
thus  producing  the  refrigerating  effect.  The  refrigerating 
effect  may  be  utilized  by  cooling  brine  and  circulating  this 
brine  around  the  compartment  to  be  cooled,  or,  for  a  drink- 
ing-water system,  the  most  convenient  way  is  to  place  this 
expansion-coil  in  the  drinking-water  tank. 

The  water  from  this  system  is  delivered  to  marble  foun- 
tains placed  on  each  of  the  various  floors  of  the  building,  and 
is  kept  constantly  circulating  in  the  supply-pipe.  By  reason 
of  this  system  of  circulation  the  water  first  delivered  from 
any  faucet  is  cold  as  soon  as  the  faucet  is  opened,  and  there 
is  no  necessity  for  any  waste  of  water  while  waiting  for  it  to 
run  cold.  The  entire  apparatus  is  very  nearly  automatic  in 
its  action,  does  not  require  a  special  attendant,  and  running 
expenses  are  insignificant.  Buildings  in  process  of  construc- 
tion can  be  equipped  at  a  small  expense,  so  that  a  plant  can 
be  installed  at  any  time. 

ELEVATOR  CALLING-SIGNALS.  —  \Yherever  banks  of 
high-duty  passenger-elevators  are  operated  in  a  modern 
office-building,  it  becomes  of  prime  importance  to  provide 
some  means  whereby  the  intending  passenger  on  any  floor 
may  signal  his  desire  to  go  up  or  down  to  the  operators  in 
the  various  cars,  so  that  each  may  be  suitably  operated. 
With  the  present  high-class  elevator  service,  now  becoming 
so  prominent  a  feature  of  such  structures,  it  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  keep  the  various  elevators  running  on  sched- 
ule time,  and  land  the  passengers  at  their  respective  floors 
with  the  greatest  comfortable  speed.  Yet  every  facility  must 
be  afforded'  the  waiting  passenger  at  any  intermediate  floor 


2  SO 


THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


HIGH   OfflCE-B  L'll.D  1XGS. 


281 


to  avail  himself  of  the  elevator  service  in  either  direction  with 
the  smallest  loss  of  time  and  with  the  minimum  of  exertion 
on  his  part.  The  calling  method  in  vogue  in  many  installa- 
tions has  very  serious  objections,  although  it  is  certainly  the 
acme  of  simplicity.  Aside  from  the  annoyance  created  by 
the  almost  continuous  calls  of  "  up  "  or  "  down  "  from  the 


Fi<;.   128. — MAIN  COMMUTATOR-SWITCH  AND  CONTROL  MAC.NKTS   FOR    F.I.K- 

VA  i  OK   CAI.I.IN<;-SH;NAI.S. 

waiting-passengers  at  the  various  floors,  the  service  ren- 
dered is  very  poor,  particularly  with  high-speed  service.  The 
passenger,  in  the  majority  of  instances,  does  not  call  until 
the  car  has  proceeded  too  far  to  make  the  floor  landing,  and, 
where  the  operator  is  sufficiently  accommodating,  must  re- 
turn. In  addition,  therefore,  to  poor  service,  inefficiency 
also  results,  as  one  of  the  prime  economical  requisites  of 
good  elevator  service  is  to  make  quick,  exact  stops  and  con- 
tinuous trips.  The  use  of  individual  floor-annunciators 
located  in  each  car.  and  indicating  up  and  down  for  each 


282 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 


floor,  operating  in  conjunction  with  up-and-down  pushes  on 
each  landing,  eliminates  many  of  the  previously  mentioned 
difficulties.  Yet  there  is  still  an  opportunity  for  confusion 
in  answering  the  signal,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  signal  is 
received  in  all  cars.  In  order  to  meet  the  exact  require- 
ments such  a  signal  system  should  only  communicate  with 
the  nearest  up  or  down  car  approaching  the  landing  at  which 


Fir,.    129. — SWITCH    MKCHAMSM    ON    Top    OF    ELEVATOR    SHAFT    FOR 
CALLING-SIGNALS. 

the  respective  button  has  heen  operated.  Such  a  system 
has  just  been  installed  at  the  new  Telephone  Building  in  this 
city,  working  in  conjunction  with  multiple-sheave  high-duty 
electric  elevator  equipment  (consisting  of  three  machines). 

At  each  floor-landing  (see  Fig.  131)  two  ordinary  push- 
contact  buttons  are  neatly  mounted  on  an  ornamental  block 
set  in  the  hoistway  frame.  These  buttons  are  marked  "  Up  " 
and  "  Down."  and  are  normally  open.  The  car-signal  con- 
sists of  a  small  colored  incandescent  lamp,  enclosed  in  an 
opalescent  globe  and  ornamental  holder.  This  lamp  is  illu- 
minated when  the  car  approaches  within  one  floor  of  the 


///(,'//    OFF1CE-K  U1LD1XGS. 


28 


one  on  which  the  operated  button  is  located,  and  is  auto- 
matically extinguished  shortly  after  the  car  has  left  the  floor. 
These  features  are  adjustable.  Should  it  be  inconvenient  to 
stop  on  receipt  of  this  signal,  the  operator  may  push  the 
normally  closed  circuit  button,  which  prevents  the  opera- 
tion of  the  signal  for  that  particular  car,  but  leaves  the  others 
intact. 

To  produce  these  results  a  so-called  commutator  is  me- 


Vic,.    130. —  DETAILS    or    COMMUTATOR 


chanically  connected  to  each  sheave  mechanism  on  the  top 
of  each  hoistway.  The  commutator  consists  of  a  screw- 
spindle  rotated  by  a  chain  and  sprocket  connection  with  the 
moving  car-cable  sheave.  On  this  spindle  a  nut  i--  moved 
longitudinally,  being  held  from  rotation  by  two  diametrically 
opposite  contact-arms.  When  the  spindle  revolves  in  either 
direction  the  friction  between  the  nut  and  the  screw-shaft  i^ 
sufficient  to  carry  the  former  slightly  over  in  the  direction 
of  rotation,  raising  the  contact-arm  on  the  opposite  side  of 
the  contact-blocks,  while  the  other  is  pressed  down  on  the 
opposite  blocks.  One  of  the  commutator  devices  is  fitted 


284  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

with  a  set  of  controlling  magnets,  which  are  connected  to  the 
contact-buttons  and  control  the  light  contacts.  All  con- 
tacts on  one  side  are  for  down  signals,  those  on  the  other 
for  up.  The  magnets  are  similarly  arranged.  The  dia- 
grams show  the  arrangement  and  connections. 

On  each  side  of  the  screw-spindle  is  a  continuous-contact 
strip,  followed  by  a  parallel  series  of  release-magnet  and  car- 
signal  light  contacts.  All  of  the  various  contacts  are  in  mul- 
tiple. The  arrangement  of  the  magnets  will  readily  be  seen 
from  the  illustration.  Fig.  130.  Their  function  is  to  control 
the  light  signal-contacts.  The  upper  row  of  magnets  on 
each  side  are  connected  and  controlled  by  the  landing- 
pushes,  those  on  one  side  being  controlled  by  the  up  mish 
and  those  on  the  other  by  the  down.  \Yhen  any  one  of  these 
magnets  is  energized  by  the  completion  of  the  circuit 
through  the  button,  it  attracts  its  armature  and  thereby  re- 
leases the  armature  of  the  lower  magnet,  to  which  a  switch- 
arm  is  attached,  which,  dropping  into  a  mercury-cup,  con- 
nects the  corresponding  light  contact.  This  mercury-switch 
is  held  closed  by  its  own  weight,  and  remains  in  this  position 
until  the  release-magnet  is  energized,  acting  on  its  armature 
and  raising  the  contact-arm  out  of  the  mercury-cup.  As 
the  car  moves  up  or  down  the  shaft  the  contact-brushes  on 
one  or  the  other  of  the  arms  are  brought  into  connection 
with  the  various  release-magnet  and  light  contacts.  When 
the  light  contact,  whose  circuit  has  been  closed  by  the  mag- 
netically operated  mercury-switch,  is  connected  to  the 
moving  contact-arm,  the  car-light  circuit  is  closed  through 
the  lamp  in  the  car  and  signals  the  operator  to  stop.  \Yhen 
the  contact-arm  leaves  this  contact-block  the  light  is  ex- 
tinguished, and  the  mercury-switch  is  opened  when  the  con- 
tact-arm comes  in  connection  with  the  next  block,  on  a  line 
with  which  is  also  the  release-magnet  contact  of  the  pre- 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  285 

viously  operated  mercury-switch.  The  connection  of  the 
latter  circuit  energizes  the  release-magnet,  and  allows  the 
switch-operating  armature  to  return  to  its  normal  position. 
In  the  diagram  are  shown  an  additional  row  of  contacts  ad- 
jacent to  the  car-light  contacts  on  each  side.  These  control 
lights  are  located  on  the  landings  at  each  elevator-shaft,  and 


Fii;.    131. — DIAGRAM    OK   WIRING    CONNECTIONS    FOR    ELEVATOR    CAL.I.IM.- 

SIGNALS. 

indicate   whether  that   particular  car  is  going  up  or  down. 
This  feature  is  omitted  in  the  Telephone  lUiilding  plant. 

If  a  button  should  be  pushed,  and  the  first  approaching 
car  either  up  or  down  be  fully  loaded  or  otherwise  unable  to 
take  on  the  passenger,  the  operator  pushes  the  button  in  the 
car  which  is  connected  in  series  with  the  release-magnet,  and 
this  prevents  the  completion  of  the  circuit  when  the  terminal 
comes  in  contact  with  the  arm.  The  next  approaching  car 
will,  however,  receive  this  signal,  as  the  switching'  magnet 
remains  closed  until  the  release-magnet  is  energized.  It 
will  be  noted  that  all  the  release-magnet  and  light  terminal- 


286  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

are  in  multiple,  so  that  one  set  of  up-and-down  magnets  may 
control  any  number  of  floor-pushes  and  commutators.  In 
this  installation  there  are  twelve  floors  and  three  commuta- 
tors. 

For  supplying  current  to  this  signal  system  a  small  motor 
generator  is  used,  taking  current  from  the  i  lo-volt  lighting 
circuit  of  the  building,  and  reducing  to  about  10  volts,  at 
which  it  is  supplied  through  the  commutator-terminals  and 
landing-pushes  to  the  closing  and  releasing  magnets.  It  will 
be  noted  that  this  part  of  the  apparatus  is  entirely  free  from 
the  car-signal  lights,  which  are  supplied  from  the  i  lo-volt 
line,  which  is  connected  from  a  central' point  in  the  hatch- 
way to  the  car,  the  two-car  release-wires  from  each  com- 
mutator being  carried  in  the  same  cable. — Tlic  Electrical 
ITorhl,  Sept.  4,  1896, 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  287 


CHAPTER    IX. 
PLUMBING    AND    DRAINAGE. 

THE  rules  and  regulations  governing  plumbing  in  New 
York  City  have  at  last  been  completed,  the  ground  being  so 
well  covered  that  they  will  not  be  materially  changed  for 
years  to  come.  On  several  occasions  we  have  had  plans 
passed  and  approved,  and  yet  before  completion  of  the  work 
at  the  building  have  been  notified  that  it  could  not  proceed 
on  account  of  a  change  in  the  law  covering  the  particular 
part  objected  to;  the  work  being  allowed  to  go  on  upon  our 
stating  that  the  plans  had  been  approved  under  the  old  law. 

We  believe  the  present  law  excellent,  and  herewith  pub- 
lish the  rules  and  regulations  complete,  knowing  that  for 
reference  they  will  be  valuable  to  architects  and  builders 
outside  of  as  well  as  in  the  city  of  Xew  York. 

PLVMBIXG     RULES     AND     REGULATIONS     ACCORDING     TO     TILE 
NEW   YORK   BUILDING   LAW    IN    EFFECT  JANUARY    I,    1897. 

Drawings  and  triplicate  descriptions  on  forms  furnished 
by  the  Department  of  Buildings  for  all  plumbing  and  drain- 
age shall  be  filled  in  with  ink  and  filed  by  the  owner,  archi- 
tect, or  plumber  in  the  said  Department. 

And  the  said  plumbing  and  drainage  shall  not  be  com- 
menced or  proceeded  with  until  said  drawings  and  descrip- 
tions shall  have  been  so  filed  and  approved  by  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Buildings. 


288  THE   PLANNING   AA'D    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

No  modification  of  the  approved  drawings  and  descrip- 
tions will  be  permitted  unless  either  amended  drawings  and 
triplicate  descriptions,  or  an  amendment  to  the  original 
drawings  and  descriptions,  covering  the  proposed  change  or 
changes,  are  so  filed  and  approved  by  the  Superintendent  of 
Buildings. 

It  shall  not  be  lawful  to  do  said  plumbing  and  drainage 
except  pursuant  to  said  approved  drawings  and  descriptions 
or  approved  amendments  thereof. 

Repairs  or  alterations  of  plumbing  and  drainage  may  be 
made  without  the  filing  and  approval  of  drawings  and  de- 
scriptions in  the  Department  of  Buildings.  But  said  repairs 
or  alterations  shall  not  be  construed  to  include  cases  where 
new  vertical  and  horizontal  lines  of  soil,  waste,  vent,  or 
leader  pipes  are  proposed  to  be  used. 

Notice  of  said  repairs  or  alterations  shall  be  given  to  the 
said  Department,  before  the  same  are  commenced,  in  all 
cases,  except  where  leaks  are  stopped  or  obstructions  are  re- 
moved. 

Said  notice  shall  consist  of  a  description  in  writing  of  the 
work  to  be  done,  of  the  location  of  the  property  where  the 
same  is  executed,  and  of  the  names  and  addresses  of  the 
owner  and  of  the  plumber. 

Said  notice  shall  not,  however,  be  required  when  repairs 
or  alterations  are  ordered  by  the  Board  of  Health  for  sani- 
tary reasons. 

Said  repairs  and  alterations  shall  comply  in  all  respects 
with  the  weight,  quality,  arrangement,  and  venting  of  the 
rest  of  the  work  in  the  building. 

The  plans  must  be  drawn  to  scale  in  ink  on  cloth,  or  they 
must  be  cloth  prints  of  such  scale  drawings,  and  shall  con- 
sist of  such  floor  plans  and  sections  as  may  be  necessary  to 
show  clearly  all  plumbing  work  to  be  done,  and  must  show 


HIGH  OFFICE -BUILD  INGS.  289 

partitions  and  the  method  of  ventilating"  water-closet  apart- 
ments. 

Written  notice  must  be  given  to  the  Department  of 
Buildings  by  the  plumber  when  any  work  is  begun,  and  from 
time  to  time  when  any  work  is  ready  for  inspection.  No  part 
of  the  work  shall  be  covered  until  it  has  been  examined, 
tested,  and  approved  by  the  Inspector. 

Definition  of  Terms. — The  term  "  private  sewer  "  is  ap- 
plied to  main  sewers  that  are  not  constructed  by  and  under 
the  supervision  of  the  Department  of  Public  Works  or  the 
Department  of  Street  Improvements  of  the  Twenty-third 
and  Twenty-fourth  Wards. 

The  term  "  house-sewer  "  is  applied  to  that  part  of  the 
main  drain  or  sewer  extending  from  a  point  two  feet  outside 
of  the  outer  face  of  the  outer  front  vault  or  area  wall  to  its 
connection  with  the  public  sewer,  private  sewer,  or  cesspool. 

The  term  "  house-drain  "  is  applied  to  that  part  of  the 
main  horizontal  drain  and  its  branches  inside  the  walls  of  the 
building  and  extending  to  and  connecting  with  the  house- 
sewer. 

The  term  "  soil-pipe  "  is  applied  to  any  vertical  line  of 
pipe,  extending  through  roof,  receiving  the  discharge  of  one 
or  more  water-closets,  with  or  without  other  fixtures. 

The  term  "  waste-pipe  "  is  applied  to  any  pipe,  extend- 
ing through  roof,  receiving  the  discharge  from  any  fixtures 
except  water-closets. 

The  term  "  vent-pipe  "  is  applied  to  any  special  pipe  pro- 
vided to  ventilate  the  system  of  piping  and  to  prevent  trap 
Mphonage  and  back-pressure. 

I.  Materials  and  Workmanship. — All  materials  must  be 
of  the  best  quality,  free  from  defects;  and  all  work  must  be 
executed  in  a  thorough,  workmanlike  manner. 

All  cast-iron  pipes  and  fittings  must  be  uncoatecl.  sor.nd. 


290  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

cylindrical,  and  smooth,  free  from  cracks,  sand-holes,  and 
other  defects,  and  of  uniform  thickness  and  of  the  grade 
known  in  commerce  as  extra-heavy. 

Pipe,  including  the  hub,  shall  weigh  not  less  than  the  fol- 
lowing average  weights  per  lineal  foot  : 


Diameters. 

Weights  per 
Lineai  F»ot. 

2  inc 

3 
4 

5 
0 

7 

S 

10 
I  2 

hes    

5s  poi 
94 

13 

i7 
20 

27 
33  i 
45 
*j 

inds. 

The  size,  weight,  and  maker's  name  must  be  cast  on  each 
length  of  the  pipe. 

All  joints  must  be  made  with  picked  oakum  and  molten 
lead,  and  be  made  gas-tight.  Twelve  (  12)  ounces  of  fine, 
soft  pig  lead  must  be  used  at  each  joint  for  each  inch  in  the 
diameter  of  the  pipe. 

All  wrought-iron  and  steel  pipe  must  be  equal  in  quality 
to  "  Standard,"  and  be  properly  tested  by  the  manufacturer. 
All  pipe  must  be  lap-welded.  Xo  plain  back  or  uncoated 
pipe  will  be  permitted. 

After  January  i.  1^97,  wrought-iron  and  steel  pipe  must 
be  galvani/.ed,  and  each  length  must  have  the  weight  per 
foot  and  maker's  name  stamped  on  it. 

Fittings  for  vent-pipes  on  wrought-iron  or  steel  pipes 
may  be  the  ordinary  cast  or  malleable  steam  and  water  fit- 
tings. 

Fittings  for  waste  or  soil  pipes  must  be  the  special,  extra- 
heavv  cast-iron  recessed  and  threaded  drainage  fittings,  with 


HIGH  OFFICE-K  U1LDINGS. 


291 


smooth  interior  waterway  and  threads  tapped,  so  as  to  give  a 
uniform  grade  to  branches  of  not  less  than  j  of  an  inch  per 
foot . 

All  joints  to  be  screwed  joints  made  up  with  red  lead, 
and  the  burr  formed  in  cutting  must  be  carefully  reamed 
out. 

Short  nipples  on  wrought-iron  or  steel  pipe  where  the 
unthreaded  part  of  the  pipe  is  less  than  one  and  one-half  (H) 
inches  long  must  be  of  the  thickness  and  weight  known  as 
"  extra  heavy  "  or  "  extra  strong." 

The  pipe  shall  be  not  less  than  the  following  average 
thickness  and  weight  per  lineal  foot  : 


Thicknesses. 


Weights  per  Lineal 
Foot. 


inch 


2i 

3 

3* 

4 


10 
i  i 


.14  inc 
•15 

hes.    2 
3 

68  pou 
6  1 

nds. 

.  20 

5 

74 

.21 

7 

54 

•23 

9 

10 

00 

66 

•24 

12 

34 

•25 

.  28 

M 

18 

50 
76 

•3» 
•  32 

23 

28 

27 
18 

•34 
•3f> 

33 
4<J 

7« 
06 

•37 

45 

02 

•37         4> 

98 

All  brass  pipe  for  soil,  waste,  and  vent  pipes  and  solder- 
nipples  must  be  thoroughly  annealed,  seamless,  drawn  brass 
tubing,  of  standard  iron-pipe  gauge.  Connections  on  brass 
pipe  and  between  brass  pipe  and  traps  or  iron  pipe  must  not 
be  made  with  slip-joints  or  couplings.  Threaded  connec- 
tions on  brass  pipe  must  be  of  the  same  size  as  iron-pipe 
threads  for  same  size  of  pipe  and  be  tapered. 


292 


THE   BUILDING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 


The  following  average  thickness  and  weights  per  lineal 
foot  will  be  required  : 


Diameters. 

Thicknesses. 

Weights  per  Lineal 
Foot. 

\\  inc 

2 

2* 
3 

3i 

4 
4* 

5 
6 

.  14  inc 

•15 
.20 
.21 
.22 

•23 
.24 

•25 

.28 

hes. 

3 
6 

7 
9 
n 

13 
15 
19 

84  pou 
82 
08 
92 

54 
29 

08 

37 

88 

n.ds. 

Brass  ferrules  must  be  best  quality,  bell-shaped,  extra- 
heavy  cast  brass,  not  less  than  four  inches  long  and  two  and 
one-quarter  inches,  three  and  one-half  inches  and  four  and 
one-half  inches  in  diameter,  and  not  less  than  the  following 
weights  : 


Diameters. 


Weights. 


2\  inches r  pound     o  ounces. 

3!        "       i        "        12 

4^        "       2  pounds  8         " 


One  and  one-half  inch  ferrules  are  not  permitted. 
Soldering-nipples  must  be  heavy  cast  brass  or  of  brass  pipe, 
iron-pipe  size.  When  cast,  they  must  be  not  less  than  the 
following  weights  : 


Diameters. 


Weights. 


o  pounds  8  ounces. 

0  "       14 

1  pound    6  ounces. 

2  pounds  o  ounces. 

3  "         8       - 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  293 

Brass  screw-caps  for  clean-outs  must  be  extra  heavy,  not 
less  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  thick,  and  must  have  a  flange 
of  not  less  than  three-sixteenths  of  an  inch  thick.  The 
screw-cap  must  have  a  solid  square  or  hexagonal  nut  not  less 
than  one  (i)  inch  high,  with  a  least  diameter  of  one  and  one- 
half  (i4)  inches.  The  body  of  the  clean-out  ferrule  must  at 
least  equal  in  weight  and  thickness  the  calking  ferrule  for 
the  same  size  of  pipe.  Where  clean-outs  are  required  by 
rules  and  by  the  approved  plans  the  screw-cap  must  be  of 
brass.  The  engaging  parts  must  have  not  less  than  six  (6) 
threads  of  iron-pipe  size  and  tapered.  Clean-outs  must  be  of 
full  size  of  the  trap  up  to  four  (4)  inches  for  large  traps. 

The  use  of  lead  pipe  is  restricted  to  the  short  branches  of 
the  soil,  waste,  and  vent  pipes,  bends,  and  traps,  roof  connec- 
tion of  inside  leaders  and  flush-pipes. 

All  lead,  waste,  soil,  vent,  and  flush  pipes  must  be  of  the 
best  quality  drawn  pipe  of  the  quality  known  in  commerce 
as  ''  D,"  and  of  not  less  than  the  following  weights  per  lineal 
foot  : 


Diameters.  Weights  per 

Lineal  hoot. 


ij-inch  (for  flush    pipes  only) 2\  pounds. 

i|  inches 3 

2  "       4 

3  "       6 

4  and  4\  inches 8 


All  lead  traps  and  bends  must  be  of  the  same  weights  and 
thicknesses  as  their  corresponding  pipe  branches.  Sheet 
lead  for  roof-flashings  must  be  six-pound  lead  and  must  ex- 
tend not  less  than  six  (6)  inches  from  the  pipe,  and  the  joint 
made  water-tight.  Copper  tubing  when  used  for  inside 
leader  roof  connections  must  be  seamless  drawn  tubing 


294  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

not  less  than  22  gauge,  and  when  used  for  roof-flashings 
must  be  not  less  than  18  gauge. 

II.  General  Plan  of  Plumbing  and  Drainage  approved  by 
the  Superintendent  of  Buildings. — Each  building  must  be 
separately  and  independently  connected  with  the  public  or 
a  private  sewer. 

The  entire  plumbing  and  drainage  system  of  every  build- 
ing must  be  entirely  separate  and  independent  of  that  of  any 
other  building. 

Every  building  must  have  its  sewer  connections  directly 
in  front  of  the  building  unless  permission  is  otherwise 
granted  by  the  Superintendent  of  Buildings. 

Where  there  is  no  sewer  in  the  street  or  avenue,  and  it  is 
possible  to  construct  a  private  sewer  to  connect  with  a  sewer 
in  an  adjacent  street  or  avenue,  a  private  sewer  must  be  con- 
structed. 

It  must  be  laid  outside  the  curb,  under  the  roadway  of  the 
street. 

Cesspools  and  privy  vaults  will  betpermitted  only  after  it 
has  been  shown  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  Superintendent  of 
Buildings  that  their  use  is  absolutely  necessary. 

\Yhen  allowed  they  must  be  constructed  strictly  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  terms  of  the  permit  issued  by  the  Superin- 
tendent of  Huildings. 

Cesspools  will  not  be  permitted  under  any  circumstances 
for  tenement  and  lodging  houses.  Cesspools  will  not  be  al- 
lowed outside  the  frame-building  district.  As  soon  as  it  is 
possible  to  connect  with  a  public  sewer  the  owner  must  have 
the  cesspool  and  privy  vault  emptied,  cleaned  and  disin- 
fected, and  filled  with  fresh  earth,  and  have  a  sewer  connec- 
tion made  in  the  manner  herein  prescribed. 

Old  house-sewers  can  be  used  in  connection  with  the  new 
buildings  or  new  plumbing  only  when  they  are  found  on  ex- 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS,  295 

animation  by  the  Plumbing'  Inspector  to  conform  in  all  re- 
spects to  the  requirements  governing  new  sewers. 

When  a  proper  foundation,  consisting  of  a  natural  bed  of 
earth,  rock,  etc.,  can  be  obtained,  the  house-sewer  can  be  of 
earthenware  pipe. 

Where  the  ground  is  made  or  tilled  in.  or  where  the  pipes 
are  less  than  three  feet  deep,  or  in  any  case  where  there  is 
danger  of  settlement  by  frost  or  from  any  other  cause,  and 
when  cesspools  are  used,  the  house-sewer  must  be  of  extra- 
heavy  cast-iron  pipe  with  lead-calked  joints. 

The  house-sewer  and  house-drain  must  be  at  least  4 
inches  in  diameter  where  water-closets  discharge  into  them. 

Where  rain-water  discharges  into  them,  the  house-sewer 
and  the  house-drain  up  to  the  leader  connections  must  be  in 
accordance  with  the  following  table  : 


Diameter.  Fall  J4  Inch  per  Foot.  Kail  \-±  Inch  per  Foot. 


inches  ......        5,000  square  feet.  7,5<->o  square  feet  of  drainage  of  area. 

"       ......  I  6,900  10,300 

"       ......  9.IOO  13,600 

"       ......  1  1,  600  17,400 


Xo  steam-exhaust,  boiler  blow-off,  or  drip  pipe  shall  be 
connected  with  the  house  drain  or  sewer.  Such  pipes  must 
first  discharge  into  a  proper  condensing-tank,  and  from  this 
a  proper  outlet  to  the  house-sewer  outside  the  building  must 
be  provided.  In  low-pressure  steam  systems  the  condens- 
ing-tank may  be  omitted,  but  the  waste  connection  must  be 
otherwise  as  above  required. 

The  house-drain  and  its  branches  must  be  of  extra-heavy 
cast  iron  when  under  ground,  and  of  extra-heavy  cast  iron  or 
galvanized  tarred  or  asphalted  wrought  iron  or  steel  when 
above  ground. 

The  house-drain  must  properly  connect  with  the  house- 


296  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

sewer  at  a  point  two  feet  outside  of  the  outer  front  vault  or 
area  wall  of  the  building.  An  arched  or  other  proper  open- 
ing must  be  provided  for  the  drain  in  the  wall  to  prevent 
damage  by  settlement. 

The  house-drain  and  sewer  must  be  run  as  direct  as  pos- 
sible, with  a  fall  of  at  least  one-quarter  inch  per  foot,  all 
changes  in  direction  made  with  proper  fittings,  and  all  con- 
nections made  with  Y  branches  and  one-eighth  and  one-six- 
teenth bends. 

If  possible  the  house-drain  must  be  above  the  cellar-floor. 
The  house-drain  must  be  supported  at  intervals  of  10  feet  by 
8-inch  brick  piers  or  suspended  from  the  floor-beams  or  be 
otherwise  properly  supported  by  heavy  iron  pipe-hangers  at 
intervals  of  not  more  than  10  feet. 

The  use  of  pipe-hooks  for  supporting  drains  is  pro- 
hibited. 

An  iron  running  trap  must  be  placed  on  the  house-drain 
near  the  wall  of  the  house,  and  on  the  sewer  side  of  all  con- 
nections, except  a  drip-pipe,  where  one  is  used.  If  placed 
outside  the  house  or  below  the  cellar-floor  it  must  be  made 
accessible  in  a  brick  manhole,  the  walls  of  which  must  be  8 
inches  thick,  with  an  iron  or  flagstone  cover.  \Yhen  outside 
the  house  it  must  never  be  less  than  3  feet  below  the  surface 
of  the  ground.  The  house-trap  must  have  two  clean-outs 
with  brass  screw-cap  ferrules  calked  in. 

A  fresh-air  inlet  must  be  connected  with  the  house-drain 
just  inside  of  the  house-trap.  The  fresh-air  inlet  will  be  of 
extra-heavy  cast  iron  where  under  ground.  \Yhere  possible 
it  will  extend  to  the  outer  air  and  finish  with  a  return  bend 
at  least  one  foot  above  grade,  and  15  feet  away  from  any 
window  or  furnace  cold-air  box.  \Yhen  this  arrangement  is 
not  possible,  the  fresh-air  inlet  must  open  into  the  side  of  a 
box  not  less  than  18  inches  square  placed  below  the  sidewalk. 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS,  297 

at  the  curb.  The  bottom  of  the  box  must  be  18  inches  be- 
low the  under  side  of  the  fresh-air  inlet-pipe.  The  box  may 
be  of  cast  iron,  or  it  may  be  constructed  with  8-inch  walls  of 
brick  or  flagstone  laid  in  hydraulic  cement.  The  box  must 
be  covered  by  a  flagstone  fitted  with  removable  metal  grat- 
ing, leaded  into  the  stone,  having  openings  equal  in  area  to 
the  area  of  the  fresh-air  inlet  and  not  less  than  one-half  inch 
in  their  least  dimension.  The  fresh-air  inlet  must  be  of  the 
same  size  as  the  drain  up  to  four  (4)  inches;  for  five  (5)  inch 
and  six  (6)  inch  drains  it  must  be  not  less  than  four  (4)  inches 
in  diameter;  for  seven  (7)  inch  and  eight  (8)  inch  drains  not 
less  than  six  (6)  inches  in  diameter;  and  for  larger  drains  not 
less  than  eight  inches  in  diameter. 

All  yards,  courts,  and  areas  must  be  drained.  Tenement- 
houses  and  lodging-houses  must  have  their  yards,  areas,  and 
courts  drained  into  the  sewer. 

These  drains,  when  sewer-connected,  must  have  connec- 
tions not  less  than  three  inches  in  diameter.  They  should,  if 
possible,  be  controlled  by  one  trap — the  leader-trap  if  pos- 
sible. Leader-pipes  must  be  sewer-connected  if  possible. 

All  buildings  shall  be  kept  provided  with  proper  metallic 
leaders  for  conducting  water  from  the  roofs  in  such  manner 
as  shall  protect  the  walls  and  foundations  of  said  buildings 
from  injury.  In  no  case  shall  the  water  from  said  leaders  be 
allowed  to  flow  upon  the  sidewalk,  but  the  same  shall  be  con- 
ducted by  pipe  or  pipes  to  the  sewer.  If  there  be  no  sewer 
in  the  street  upon  which  such  buildings  front,  then  the  water 
from  said  leader  shall  be  conducted  by  proper  pipe  or  pipes 
below  the  surface  of  the  sidewalk  to  the  street  gutter. 

Inside  leaders  must  be  made  of  cast  iron,  wrought  iron, 
or  steel,  with  roof  connections  made  gas  and  water  tight 
by  means  of  a  heavy  lead  or  copper  drawn  tubing  wiped  or 


298  THE    PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    Of- 

soldered  to  a  brass  ferrule  or  nipple  calked  or  screwed  into 
the  pipe. 

Outside  leaders  may  be  of  sheet  metal,  but  they  must 
connect  with  the  house-drain  by  means  of  a  cast-iron  pipe 
extending  vertically  five  feet  above  the  grade  level. 

Leaders  must  be  tapped  with  cast-iron  running  traps  so 
placed  as  to  prevent  freezing.  Rain-water  leaders  must  not 
be  used  as  soil,  waste,  or  vent  pipes,  nor  shall  any  such  pipe 
be  used  as  a  leader. 

Cellar-drains  will  be  permitted  only  where  they  can  be 
connected  to  a  trap  with  a  permanent  water-seal. 

Subsoil  drains  should  discharge  into  a  sump  or  receiving- 
tank,  the  contents  of  which  must  be  lifted  and  discharged 
into  the  drainage  system  above  the  cellar-bottom  by  some 
approved  method. 

\Yhere  directly  sewer-connected  they  must  be  cut  off 
from  the  rest  of  the  plumbing  system  by  a  brass  flap- valve 
on  the  inlet  to  the  catch-basin,  and  the  trap  on  the  drain 
from  the  catch-basin  must  be  water-supplied,  as  required  for 
cellar-drains. 

Foundation-walls  must,  where  required,  be  rendered  im- 
pervious to  dampness  bv  the  use  of  coal-tar,  pitch,  or  asphal- 
tum. 

Full-size  Y  and  T  branch  fittings  for  hand-hole  clean-outs 
must  be  provided  where  required  on  house-drain  and  ils 
branches. 

All  iron  traps  for  house-drain,  yard,  and  other  drains  and 
leaders,  must  be  running  traps  with  hand-hole  clean-outs  of 
full  size  of  the  traps  when  same  are  less  than  five  (5)  inches. 
All  traps  under  ground  must  be  made  accessible  by  brick- 
manholes  with  proper  covers. 

Soil  and  }\7astc  Pipe  Lines. — All  main  soil,  waste,  or  vent 
pipes  must  be  of  iron,  steel,  or  brass.  \Yhen  they  receive 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  299 

the  discharge  of  fixtures  on  any  lloor  above  the  first  they 
must  be  extended  in  full  calibre  at  least  one  foot  above  the 
roof  coping,  and  well  away  from  all  shafts,  windows,  chim- 
neys, or  other  ventilating  openings.  When  less  than  four 
inches  in  diameter,  they  must  be  enlarged  to  four  inches  at  a 
point  not  less  than  one  foot  below  the  roof  surface  by  an 
increaser  not  less  than  nine  (9)  inches  long. 

No  caps,  cowls,  or  bends  shall  be  affixed  to  the  top  of 
such  pipe. 

In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  wire  baskets 
must  be  securely  fastened  into  the  opening  of  each  pipe  that 
is  in  an  accessible  position. 

All  pipes  issuing  from  extensions  or  elsewhere,  which 
would  otherwise  open  within  30  feet  of  the  window  of  any 
building,  must  be  extended  above  the  highest  roof  and  well 
awav  from  and  above  all  windows. 

The  arrangement  of  all  pipe-lines  must  be  as  straight  and 
direct  as  possible.  Offsets  will  be  permitted  only  when  una- 
voidable. 

Xecessary  offsets  above  the  highest  fixture  branch  must 
not  be  made  at  an  angle  of  less  than  45  degrees  to  the  hori- 
zontal. 

All  pipe-lines  must  be  supported  at  the  base  on  brick 
piers  or  by  heavy  iron  hangers  from  the  cellar  ceiling-beams 
and  along  the  line  by  heavy  iron  hangers  at  intervals  of  not 
more  than  ten  feet. 

All  pipes  and  traps  should,  where  possible,  be  exposed  to 
view.  They  should  always  be  readily  accessible  for  inspec- 
tion and  repairing. 

Xo  trap  shall  be  placed  at  the  foot  of  main  soil  and  waste 
pipe  lines. 

The  sixes  of  soil  and  waste  pipes  must  be  not  less  than 
those  given  in  the  following  table  : 


300  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

Main  soil-pipe,  4  inches  in  diameter;  main  waste-pipe,  2 
inches  in  diameter;  branch  soil-pipe,  4  inches  in  diameter; 
branch  waste  for  laundry-tubs,  2  inches  in  diameter;  branch 
waste  for  kitchen-sink,  2  inches  in  diameter;  soil-pipe  for 
water-closets  on  five  or  more  floors,  5  inches  in  diameter; 
waste-pipes  for  kitchen-sinks  on  five  or  more  floors,  3  inches 
in  diameter;  main  soil-pipe  for  three-family  tenement-houses 
exceeding  three  stories,  4  inches  in  diameter. 

In  every  building  where  there  is  a  leader  connected  to 
the  drain,  if  there  are  any  plumbing  fixtures,  there  must  be  at 
least  one  four  (4)  inch  pipe  extending  above  the  roof  for  ven- 
tilation. 

Soil  and  waste  pipes  must  have  proper  Y  branches  for  all 
fixture  connections. 

Branch  soil  and  waste  pipe  must  have  a  fall  of  at  least 
one-quarter  inch  per  foot.  Short  T  Y  branches  will  be  per- 
mitted on  vertical  lines  only.  Long  one-quarter  bends  and 
long  T  V's  are  permitted.  Short  one-quarter  bends  and 
double  hubs,  short  roof-increasers,  and  common  offsets  are 
prohibited. 

All  traps  must  be  protected  from  siphonage  and  back- 
pressure, and  the  drainage  system  ventilated  by  special  lines 
of  vent-pipes. 

All  vent-pipe  lines  and  main  branches  must  be  of  iron, 
steel,  or  brass.  They  must  be  increased  in  diameter  and  ex- 
tended above  the  roof  as  required  for  waste-pipes.  They 
may  be  connected  with  the  adjoining  soil  or  waste  line  well 
above  the  highest  fixture,  but  this  will  not  be  permitted 
when  there  are  fixtures  on  more  than  six  floors. 

All  offsets  must  be  made  at  an  angle  of  not  less  than 
forty-five  degrees  to  the  horizontal,  and  all  lines  must  be 
connected  at  the  bottom  with  a  soil  or  waste  pipe  or  Ihe 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  3OI 

drain  in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  the  accumulation  of 
rust  scale. 

Branch  vent-pipes  should  be  kept  above  the  top  of  all 
connecting  fixtures,  to  prevent  the  use  of  vent-pipes  as  soil 
or  waste  pipes.  They  will  not  be  permitted  lower  than 
the  outlet  of  the  highest  fixture  in  the  group.  Branch  vent- 
pipes  should  be  connected  as  near  to  the  crown  of  the  trap 
as  possible. 

The'  sizes  of  vent-pipes  throughout  must  not  be  less  than 
the  following  : 

For  main  vents  and  long  branches,  two  inches  in  diam- 
eter; for  water-closets  on  three  or  more  floors,  three  inches 
in  diameter;  for  other  fixtures  on  less  than  seven  floors,  two 
inches  in  diameter;  three-inch  vent-pipe  will  be  permitted 
for  less  than  nine  stories;  for  more  than  eight  and  less  than 
sixteen  storie's,  four  inches  in  diameter;  for  more  than  fifteen 
and  less  than  twenty-two  stories,  five  inches  in  diameter  ; 
for  more  than  twenty-one  stories,  six  inches  in  diameter, 
branch  vents  for  traps  larger  than  two  inches,  two  inches  in 
diameter;  traps  two  inches  or  less,  one  and  one-half  inches 
in  diameter. 

For  fixtures  other  than  water-closets  and  slop-sinks  and 
for  more  than  eight  (8)  stories,  vent-pipes  may  be  one  ( i ) 
inch  smaller  tha-n  above  stated. 

Xo  sheet  metal,  brick,  or  other  flue  shall  be  used  as  a 
\  cnt-pipe. 

Earthenware  traps  for  water-closets  and  slop-sinks  must 
be  ventilated  from  the  branch  soil  or  waste  pipe  just  below 
the  trap,  and  this  branch  vent-pipe  must  be  so  connected  as 
to  prevent  obstruction,  and  no  waste-pipe  connected  be- 
tween it  and  the  fixture.  Earthenware  traps  must  have  no 
vent-horns. 


3O2  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

Every  fixture  must  be  separately  trapped  by  a  water-scal- 
ing trap  placed  as  close  to  the  fixture  outlet  as  possible. 

A  set  of  wash-trays  may  connect  with  a  single  trap,  or 
into  the  trap  of  an  adjoining  sink,  provided  both  sink  and 
tub-waste  outlets  are  on  the  same  side  of  the  waste-line,  and 
the  sink  is  nearest  the  line.  When  so-  connected  the  waste- 
pipe  from  the  wash-trays  must  be  branched  in  below  the 
water-seal. 

The  discharge  from  any  fixture  must  not  pass  through 
more  than  one  trap  before  reaching  the  house-drain. 

All  traps  must  be  well  supported  and  set  true  with  re- 
spect to  their  water-levels. 

All  traps  must  have  a  water-seal  of  at  least  one  and  one- 
half  inches. 

Xo  mason's,  cesspool,  bell.  pot.  bottle,  or  D  trap  will  be 
permitted,  nor  any  form  of  trap  that  is  not  self-cleaning,  nor 
that  has  interior  chamber  or  mechanism,  nor  any  trap,  ex- 
cept earthenware  ones,  that  depend  upon  interior  partitions 
for  a  seal. 

All  fixtures,  other  than  water-closet  and  urinals,  must 
have  strong  metallic  strainers  or  bars  over  the  outlets  to  pre- 
vent obstruction  of  the  waste-pipe. 

All  exposed  or  accessible  traps,  except  water-closet  traps, 
must  have  brass  trap-screws  for  cleaning  the  trap,  placed  on 
the  inlet  side,  or  below  the  water-level. 

Traps  for  water-closets  must  not  be  less  than  four  inches 
in  diameter:  traps  for  slop-sinks  must  not  be  less  than  two 
inches  in  diameter;  traps  for  kitchen-sinks  must  not  be  less 
than  two  inches  in  diameter;  traps  for  wash-trays  must  not 
be  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter;  traps  for  urinals  must 
not  be  less  than  two  inches  in  diameter;  traps  for  other  fix- 
tures must  not  be  less  than  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diam- 
eter. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  303 

Overflow-pipes  from  fixtures  must  in  all  cases  be  con- 
nected on  the  inlet  side  of  traps. 

All  earthenware  traps  must  have  heavy  brass  floor-plates 
soldered  to  the  lead  bends  and  bolted  to  the  trap  flange,  and 
the  joint  made  gas-tight  with  red  or  white  lead.  The  use  of 
rubber  washers  for  floor  connections  is  prohibited. 

Earthenware  water-closets  must  be  set  on  marble  or  slate- 
in  all  new  work,  and  when  it  is  not  impossible  to  use  it  be- 
cause of  water-pipes  or  other  obstructions,  in  all  alterations 
of  old  work. 

Safe  and  refrigerator  waste-pipes  must  be  of  galvanized 
iron,  and  be  not  less  than  one  (  i  )  inch  in  diameter,  with  lead 
branches  of  the  same  size,  with  strainers  over  the  inlets  se- 
cured by  a  bar  soldered  to  the  lead  branch. 

Safe  waste-pipes  must  not  connect  directly  with  any  part 
of  the  plumbing1  system. 

Safe  waste-pipes  must  either  discharge  over  an  open. 
water-supplied,  publicly  placed,  ordinarily  used  sink,  placed 
not  more  than  three  and  one-half  feet  above  the  cellar-floor, 
or  thev  max  discharge  upon  the  cellar-floor. 

The  safe  waste-pipe  from  a  refrigerator  cannot  discharge 
upon  the  ground  or  floor.  !t  must  discharge  over  an  ordi- 
nary portable  pan,  or  over  some  properly  trapped  water-sup- 
plied sink,  as  above. 

The  branches  on  vertical  lines  must  be  made  by  Y  fit- 
tings, and  be  carried  up  to  the  safe  with  as  much  pitch  as 
possible. 

Lead  safes  must  be  graded  and  neatly  turned  over  beve! 
strips  at  their  edges. 

\Yhere  there  is  an  offset  on  a  refrigerator  waste-pipe  in 
the  cellar,  there  must  be  clean-outs  to  control  the  horizontal 
part  of  the  pipe. 

In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  the  refrigerator 


.304  THE   PLANNING    AXD    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

waste-pipes  must  extend  above  the  roof,  and  must  not  be 
larger  than  one  and  one-half  inches,  nor  the  branches  smaller 
than  one  and  one-quarter  inches.  These  branches  must  have 
full-size  accessible  traps. 

Refrigerator  waste-pipes,  except  in  tenement-houses,  and 
all  safe  waste-pipes,  must  have  brass  flap-valves  at  their 
lower  ends. 

Fixtures. — In  tenement-houses,  lodging-houses,  factories, 
and  workshops  the  water-closets  must  be  set  on  marble, 
slate,  or  tile,  and  the  back  and  ends  of  the  water-closet  apart- 
ment must  be  made  water-proof  with  some  similar  non- 
absorbent  material. 

The  closets  must  be  set  open  and  free  from  all  inclosing 
woodwork. 

Where  water-closets  will  not  support  a  rim  seat,  the  seat 
must  be  supported  on  galvanized-iron  legs,  and  a  drip-tray 
must  be  used. 

The  general  water-closet  accommodations  for  a  tenement 
MM"  lodging  house  cannot  be  placed  in  the  cellar,  and  no 
•water-closet  can  be  placed  outside  of  the  building. 

In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  there  must  be 
one  water-closet  on  each  floor,  and  when  there  is  more  than 
•one  family  on  a  floor  there  will  be  one  additional  water-closet 
for  every  two  additional  families. 

In  lodging-houses  where  there  are  more  than  15  persons 
on  any  floor  there  must  be  an  additional  water-closet  on 
that  floor  for  every  15  additional  persons  or  fraction  thereof. 

In  all  other  sewer-connected  occupied  buildings  there 
must  be  at  least  one  water-closet,  and  there  must  be  addi- 
tional closets  so  that  there  will  never  be  more  than  15  per- 
sons per  closet. 

In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  the  water-closet 
.and  urinal  apartments  must  have  a  window  opening  to  the 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  305 

-inter  air,  or  to  a  ventilating-shaft,  not  less  than  10  s(jtiarc 
feet  in  area. 

In  all  buildings  the  outside  partition  of  such  apartment 
must  extend  to  the  ceiling  <>r  he  independently  ceiled  over, 
and  these  partitions  must  he  air-tight,  except  at  the  bottom 
of  the  door,  which  must  be  cut  away  or  provided  with  open- 
ings tc  promote  ventilation.  The  otitside  partitions  must  in- 
clude a  window  opening  to  outer  air  on  the  lot  whereon  the 
building  is  situated,  or  some  other  approved  means  of  venti- 
lation must  be  provided.  When  necessary  to  properly  light 
such  apartments,  the  upper  part  of  the  partitions  must  be 
made  of  glass.  The  interior  partitions  of  such  apartments 
must  be  dwarf  partitions. 

Pan,  valve,  plunger,  and  other  water-closets  having  an 
unventilated  space,  or  whose  walls  are  not  thoroughly 
washed  at  each  discharge,  will  not  be  permitted. 

.Ml  water-closets  must  have  earthenware  flushing  rim 
bowls.  "  Pipe  wash  "  bowls  or  hoppers  will  not  be  per- 
mitted 

Long  hoppers  will  not  be  permitted  except  where  there  is 
an  exposure  to  frost. 

Where  water-closet  or  other  fixture  traps  are  of  iron  they 
must  be  porcelain  lined. 

Drip-trays  must  be  enamelled  on  both  sides  and  secured 
in  place. 

\Yater-closets  and  urinals  must  never  be  connected  di- 
rectly with  or  flushed  from  the  water-supply  pipes. 

Water-closets  and  urinals  must  be  Hushed  from  a  sepa- 
rate cistern,  the  water  from  which  is  used  for  no  other  pur- 
pose. 

The  overflow  of  cisterns  may  discharge  into  the  bowls  of 
the  closet,  but  in  no  case  connect  with  any  part  of  the  drain- 
age system. 


3O6  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

Iron  water-closet  cisterns  and  automatic  urinal  cisterns 
are  prohibited. 

The  copper  lining  of  water-closet  and  urinal  cisterns 
must  be  not  lighter  than  ten  (10)  ounce  copper. 

\\~ater-closet  flush-pipes  must  not  be  less  than  one  and 
one-fourth  inches,  and  urinal  flush-pipes  one  (i)  inch  in  di- 
ameter, and  if  of  lead  must  not  weigh  less  than  two  and  one- 
half  pounds  and  two  pounds  per  lineal  foot.  Flush  coup- 
lings must  be  of  full  size  of  the  pipe. 

Latrines,  trough  water-closets,  and  similar  appliances 
may  be  used  only  on  written  permit  from  the  Superintendent 
of  Buildings,  and  must  be  set  and  arranged  as  may  be  re- 
quired by  the  terms  of  the  permit. 

All  urinals  must  be  constructed  of  materials  impervious 
to  moisture  that  will  not  corrode  under  the  action  of  urine. 
The  floor  and  walls  of  the  urinal  apartments  must  be  lined 
with  similar  non-absorbent  and  nan-corrosive  material. 

The  platforms  or  treads  of  urinal  stalls  must  never  be 
connected  independently  to  the  plumbing  system,  nor  can 
they  be  connected  to  any  safe  waste-pipe. 

Iron  troughs  or  urinals  must  be  enamelled  or  galvanized. 
In  tenement-houses  and  lodging-houses  sinks  must  be  en- 
tirely open,  on  iron  legs  or  brackets,  without  any  inclosing 
woodwork. 

Wooden  wash-tubs  are  prohibited.  Cement  or  artiiicial- 
stone  tubs  will  be  permitted,  provided  the  same  be  made  in 
the  following  manner,  to  wit:  The  cement  or  artificial  stone 
to  be  one  part  good  Portland  cement  to  not  more  than  three 
parts  crushed  or  broken  granite,  gneiss,  or  equally  hard 
stone,  broken  to  a  size  not  larger  than  will  go  through  a 
i -inch  ring,  well-tamped:  each  tub  to  be  branded  with  the 
owner's  name  and  with  the  absolute  mixture  stamped  on  said 
tub.  samples  of  which  shall  be  hied  and  approved  by  this 


HIGH    OFF- ICE-BUILD  INGS.  3O/ 

Department  ;  each  compartment  of  the  tub  shall  have  a 
separate  bottom  outlet  with  a  through-and-through  fitting, 
and  overflows  shall  be  external  to  the  tub. 

Xo  tubs  made  with  cinder,  ashes,  or  Rosendale  cement, 
or  any  other  materials  than  above  specified,  will  be  allowed. 

All  water-closets  and  other  plumbing  fixtures  must  be 
provided  with  a  sufficient  supply  of  water  for  Hushing,  to 
keep  them  in  a  proper  and  cleanly  condition. 

When  the  water-pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  supply  freely 
and  continuously  all  fixtures,  a  house-supply  tank  must  be 
provided,  of  sufficient  size  to  afford  an  ample  supply  of  water 
to  all  fixtures  at  all  times.  Such  tanks  must  be  supplied  from 
the  pressure  or  by  pumps,  as  may  be  necessary;  when  from 
the  pressure,  ball-cocks  must  be  provided. 

If  water-pressure  is  not  sufficient  to  fill  house-tank, 
power-pumps  must  be  provided  for  filling  them  in  tenement  - 
houses,  lodging-houses,  factories,  and  workshops. 

Tanks  must  be  covered  so  as  to  exclude  dust,  and  must 
be  so  located  as  to  prevent  water  contamination  by  gases  and 
odors  from  plumbing  fixtures. 

House-supply  tanks  must  be  of  wood  or  iron,  or  of  wood 
lined  with  tinned  and  planished  copper. 

House-tanks  must  be  supported  on  iron  beams. 

The  overflow-pipe  should  discharge  upon  the  roof  where 
possible,  and  in  such  cases  should  be  brought  down  to  within 
six  ((>)  inches  of  the  roof,  or  it  must  be  trapped  and  dis- 
charged over  an  open  and  water-supplied  sink  not  in  the 
same  room,  not  over  3!  feet  above  the  floor.  In  no  case 
shall  the  overflow  be  connected  with  any  part  of  the  plumb- 
ing system. 

Emptying-pipes  for  such  tanks  must  be  provided  and  be 
discharged  in  the  manner  required  for  overflow-pipes,  and 
mav  be  branched  into  overflow-pipes. 


3O8  7 HE    PLANNING    A\D    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

Xo  service-pipes  or  supplying-pipes  should  be  run,  and 
no  tanks,  flushing-cisterns,  or  water-supplied  fixtures  should 
be  placed,  where  they  will  be  exposed  to  frost. 

Where  so  placed  they  shall  be  properly  packed  and  boxed 
in  such  a  manner  as  to  prevent  freezing,  and  to  the  satisfac- 
tion of  the  plumbing  inspector. 

The  entire  plumbing  and  drainage  system  within  the 
building  must  be  tested  by  the  plumber,  in  the  presence  of  a 
plumbing  inspector,  under  a  water  or  air  test,  as  directed. 
All  pipes  must  remain  uncovered  in  every  part  until  they 
have  successfully  passed  the  test.  The  plumber  must  se- 
curely close  all  openings  as  directed  by  the  inspector  of 
plumbing.  The  use  of  wooden  plugs  for  this  purpose  is  pro- 
hibited. 

The  water  test  will  be  applied  by  closing  the  lower  end 
of  the  main  house-drain  and  filling  the  pipes  to  the  highest 
opening  above  the  roof  with  water.  If  the  drain  or  any  part 
of  the  system  is  to  be  tested  separately,  there  must  be  a  head 
of  water  at  least  six  (6)  feet  above  all  parts  of  the  work  so 
tested,  and  special  provision  must  be  made  for  including  all 
joints  and  connections  in  at  least  one  test. 

The  air  test  will  be  applied  with  a  force-pump  and  mer- 
cury-column under  ten  pounds  pressure  equal  to  20  inches 
of  mercury.  The  use  of  spring-gauges  is  prohibited. 

After  the  completion  of  the  work,  when  the  water  has 
been  turned  on  and  the  traps  filled,  the  plumber  must  make  a 
peppermint  or  smoke  test  in  the  presence  of  a  plumbing  in- 
spector, and  as  directed  by  him. 

The  material  and  labor  for  the  tests  must  be  furnished  by 
the  plumber.  Where  the  peppermint  test  is  used  two  ounces 
of  oil  of  peppermint  must  be  provided  for  each  line  up  to  five 
stories  and  basement  in  height,  and  for  each  additional  five 


HIGH   OfiFICE-B  L'JLDIXGS. 


309 


stories  or  fraction  thereof  one  additional  ounce  of  pepper- 
mint must  he  provided  for  each  line. 


Y-57 


FH;.   132. —  DIAIJRAM  OK  WASII- 
HASIN    I'iri;  CONNKC no\. 


133.  —  DIAUKAM  CK   Pi I'K  CDNNKC- 
ION   KOK    MK.N'S   TOII.KT   ROOMS. 


ig  and  Drainage   in   the  Central  Bank   Rnihling.— 
The  plntnhino-  work  in  the  C'entrr;!  T.ank  lUiiltlino-  is  finished 


310  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

according  to  the  rules  and  regulations  of  the  latest  New 
York  law. 

There  are  nine  lines  of  wash-basins,  connected  to  the  up 
and  down  pipes  as  shown  by  the  drawing,  Fig.  132.  The 
waste  and  vent  lines  to  these  basins  are  each  3  inches  in  di- 
ameter, while  the  branches  are  i^  inches,  the  total  number  of 
basins  throughout  the  building  being  358. 

By  referring  to  the  typical  floor-plan  of  the  building  in 
another  chapter,  it  will  be  noticed  that  there  are  two  lines  of 
toilet-rooms,  the  men's  being  placed  on  every  floor  and  the 
women's  on  the  fifth,  tenth,  and  fifteenth.  This  arrangement 
requires  two  lines  of  soil-pipes.  The  illustration.  Fig.  133, 
shows  the  pipes  for  the  men's  toilets,  and  the  plan.  Fig.  134, 
shows  the  position  of  all  the  fixtures.  The  women's  toilets 
require  a  5-inch  diameter  soil  and  4-inch  vent;  the  men's 
toilets,  a  6-inch  soil  and  5-inch  vent  for  closets,  and  a  4-inch 
vent  for  other  fixtures. 

All  urinals,  closets,  and  sinks  have  2-inch  branch  vents. 

In  addition  to  the  wash-basins  already  mentioned,  there 
are  95  closets.  33  urinals,  and  17  sinks.  The  water-closets 
throughout  are  porcelain  siphon  closets,  furnished  with 
quartered-oak  seat  and  flap,  attached  to  the  bowl.  The  vents 
from  bowl  water  connection  to  cistern  are  all  nickel-plated, 
and  each  closet  has  a  i  {-inch  nickel-plated  brass  flush-pipe, 
with  a  celluloid  pull. 

The  cisterns  are  made  of  wood,  and  are  lined  inside  with 
i6-oz.  tinned  copper  and  outside  with  marble.  The  urinals 
are  long-lipped  white  earthenware,  with  nickel-plated  outlet 
connections,  supplied  with  self-closing  cocks,  wasting 
through  a  2-inch  "  S  "  lead  trap  and  lead  waste-pipe  to  the 
galvanized  wrought-iron  outlet  pipe. 

The  wash-bowls  have  11  x  13  inch  centre  outlets,  ivorv- 
tinted  earthenware  bowls  with  earthenware  overflow,  and 


///(///    OFF1CE-BU1LD1\GS.  311 

nickel-plated  ])lug  chain  and  stay.  The  water  is  supplied 
through  self-closing  cocks,  and  wastes  through  a  i  i-inch 
nickel-plated  brass  trap  and  pipe.  The  slabs  are  supported 
on  nickel-plated  offset  legs  and  nickelled  apron-holders.  On 
supply-pipe  below  basin  there  is  placed  a  i-inch  angle  shut- 
off  valve.  In  offices  basins  are  supplied  with  cold  water;  in 
toilet-rooms,  with  hot  and  cold  water. 

The   slop-sinks  are  of    18x24x10  inch   enamelled   iron, 
and    are    supplied    with    patent    overflow,    brass    plug    and 


Fi<;.  134.   -Pi. AN   OK  .MEN'S   TOII.KT  ROOM,  CENTRAL   BANK   Hrn.niM.. 

strainer,  with  hot  and  cold  water  through  ;'-inch  self-closing 
bibb-cocks,  placed  high  enough  to  clear  a  pail.  The  waste 
is  through  a  ^-inch  cast-iron  enamelled  trap. 

The  house-drain  which  connects  with  the  main  sewer  on 
I 'earl  Street  is  8  inches  in  diameter,  of  cast  iron,  and  carried 
to  inside  of  vault  line.  From  this  point  an  <S-inch  galvani/ed 
\\rouglit-iron  drain-pipe  extends,  with  running  trap  and  vent 
outlet,  and  into  this  drain-pipe  all  other  lines  empty. 

There  are  three  5-inch  leader  lines  from  the  roof,  placed 
at  various  points,  each  to  carry  off  an  equal  amount  of  water. 
These  pipes  are  supplied  on  the  roof  with  pans  and  basket 
strainers. 


12 


THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 


The  water-piping  and  general  supply  is  as  shown  by  the- 
illustration.  Fig.  135,  the  water  being  distributed  to  the  vari- 


ous   lines   through    an    8-inch    header   placed    in    the   boiler- 
room. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  313 

The  street  supply  is  through  two  taps  2  inches  in  diam- 
eter, carried  through  a  4-inch  pipe,  meter,  and  fish-trap  to 
receiving-tank.  The  water  is  pumped  from  the  receiving- 
tank  through  a  2^-inch  pipe  to  the  tank  on  the  roof,  from 
which  a  2^-inch  pipe  leads  into  the  8-inch  header  in  boiler- 
room,  and  from  that  drum  or  header  the  water  is  distributed 
throughout  the  building  to  the  wash-basins  by  i-inch  and  to 
the  toilets  by  i^-inch  pipes. 

The  23-inch  fire-line  is  connected  to  the  fire-pump,  and 
also  to  the  house-pump;  in  fact  they  are  interchangeable,  so 
that  both  can  work  at  the  same  time  and  separately,  produc- 
ing double  or  single  pressure.  It  will  be  noticed  that  a  3- 
inch  pipe  connected  near  these  pumps  extends  to  the  street ; 
this,  in  case  of  emergency,  is  for  the  use  of  the  fire-depart- 
ment to  connect  with  their  street  engine. 

To  complete  the  fire  system,  there  is  placed  upon  each 
Moor  at  the  end  of  corridor  a  gate-valve,  with  hose,  nozzles, 
and  racks,  ready  for  instant  use. 

There  is  very  little  gas-piping  in  the  building  (electricity 
furnishing  all  the  lighting),  but  a  single  pipe  extends  up  the 
building  near  the  stairway  and  elevators,  and  supplies  gas  to 
a  combination  fixture.  In  addition  to  this  there  are  a  dozen 
or  so  outlets  in  the  machinery-hall  and  basement. 

The  plumber,  under  his  contract,  obtains  all  necessary 
permits,  sees  to  the  inspection  of  the  work,  and  complies 
with  all  city  laws  and  ordinances.  He  also  does  all  neces- 
sary excavation  for  trench  in  street  required  for  sewer  and 
water  pipes. 

The  mason  cuts  all  floor-arches  and  other  masonrv. 
and  the  carpenter  all  woodwork.  Under  no  consideration  is 
the  plumber  allowed  to  cut  the  work  of  other  mechanics. 


3 '4  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 


CHAPTER   X. 
MISCELLANEOUS    DETAILS. 

IN  the  construction  of  high  office-buildings  there  is  so 
much  miscellaneous  work  in  addition  to  that  already 
described,  that  we  herewith  give  in  a  concise  manner  descrip- 
tions, and  illustrations  where  necessary,  of  such  detail  \vork 
in  the  erection  of  the  Central  Bank  Building.  Probably  the 
first  in  importance  for  the  interior  of  the  building  and  in  the 
construction  is  ornamental  and  light  iron. 

Stairways, as  a  branch  of  the  latter,  include  the  main  stair- 
way from  first  story  to  roof,  the  first-story  stairs  being  con- 
structed of  small  I  beams  upon  which  cast-iron  knee-pieces 
are  secured  to  support  marble  treads  and  risers,  the  other 
stairs  of  cast-iron  strings,  newels,  fascias,  and  risers,  the  rail- 
ings of  wrought  iron,  with  white-marble  treads  and  marble 
wainscoting. 

All  other  stairways  are  constructed  in  the  same  manner, 
but  generally  of  simpler  designs,  and  in  many  cases  with  slate 
or  cast-iron  treads. 

Passenger-elevator  Fronts  and  Cars.  --  These  fronts  to 
the  five  elevators,  two  of  which,  as  shown  by  the  illustra- 
tion Fig.  136.  are  coupled,  consist  of  wrought  steel  in  com- 
bination with  cast  iron  for  the  doors,  fitted  with  anti-fric- 
tion hangers,  approved  locks,  buffers,  and  trucks,  complete. 

The  illustration  Fig.  137  shows  an  ornamental  panel 
grille  as  used  in  the  doors  and  in  the  sides  of  the  enclosure. 
This  design  of  grille  also  furnishes  the  upper  panels  for  the 
cars.  (See  Fig.  139.) 


FIG.  131.1.  —  DKIAII    OF    KI.F.VA  i  OK    FRONTS,  CKNTKAJ.   HANK    Hru.niNG. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  31  7 

These  elevator-shafts  are  lined  on  the  enclosure  sides  by 
fascias  made  of  sheets  of  metal  made  into  panels  by  cast-iron 
mouldings. 

We  are  also  able  to  present  an  illustration  of  Lord's 
Court  Building  passenger-car  and  first-story  enclosure,  and 
the  elevator  of  the  Bank  of  Commerce  Building,  Figs.  140, 
141,  and  142,  as  examples  of  this  class  of  work. 

Freight-elevator  Enclosures. --The  freight-elevator  is 
enclosed  on  all  sides  with  brick  and  3-inch  terra-cotta- 
block  walls.  The  opening  for  the  doorway  consists  of  3- 
inch  channels,  covered  on  the  hall  side  by  the  same  oak  trim 
as  is  used  throughout  the  building.  On  the  shaft  side  the 
channels  act  as  a  guide  for  the  metal-covered  sliding-doors. 
which  doors  are  suspended  upon  anti-friction  pulleys  and 
guided  in  a  grooved  cast-iron  saddle. 

Iterator  Gratings. — At  the  top  of  the  elevator  shafts, 
and  placed  directly  under  the  large  sheaves,  gratings  are 
placed,  composed  of  a  frame  made  of  2x2  x  j*  inch  angle- 
iron,  hung  and  filled  in  between  with  Mooring  made  of  i .}  x  ^ 
inch  bars  2.',  inches  on  centres,  all  necessary  openings  being 
made  for  cables,  etc. 

Iterator  Pits. — At  the  bottom  of  the  above  shafts  pits 
are  constructed,  composed  of  a  frame  of  3  x  3  inch  angles, 
with  floor  of  2  x  2  inch  tees  set  13  inches  on  centres,  to  hold 
terra-cotta  blocks,  while  the  entire  mass  is  cemented  over. 
In  many  cases  this  frame  and  tee  floor  is  simply  covered 
with  sheet  metal  on  all  sides  and  bottom. 

Cast-iron  Mnllions  and  Panels.  —  -  The  windows  at 
bottom  of  light-courts  over  the  first  story  are  formed  by  cast- 
iron  panelled  jambs,  fascias,  sills,  and  lintels.  Above  this 
cast-iron  work,  brick  masonry  completes  the  light-courts. 
In  manv  buildings  these  courts  are  faced  as  described  above. 


318  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION    OF 

the  facing  being  carried  up  the  entire  height  of  the  build- 
ing. 

The  windows  of  the  second  and  third  stories  facing 
Broadway  and  Pearl  Street  also  have  cast  jambs,  mullions. 
sills,  and  lintels.  The  finish  of  the  latter  is  extra-heavily 
plated  bronze  and  oxidized. 

Poors  and  Shutters. — The  various  iron  doors  consti- 
tute those  for  elevator-pits,  chimney-flue  openings,  and  coal- 
vault,  made  with  a  tlat  iron  frame  2  x  •;•  in.  and  covered  with 
sheet  iron  from  Xo.  16  to  Xo.  20  gauge.  The  special  re- 
quirements by  the  Hoard  of  Fire  Underwriters  when  com- 
munication is  had  between  buildings  are  that  there  should  be 
no  woodwork  or  furring  about  the  opening  :  the  doors 
should  be  made  of  two  thicknesses,  except  where  openings 
are  over  4  feet  in  width  and  7  feet  in  height,  of  one-inch 
tongued  and  grooved  soft  white-pine  boards  laid  diagonally 
and  nailed  with  wrought-iron  nails  driven  through  and 
clinched,  then  covered  both  sides  with  10^  14  inch  sheets  of 
bright  I.  C."  tin,  except  when  doors  are  exposed  to  an  at- 
mosphere liable  to  cause  rust  (then  terne  plates  should  be 
used);  joints  Hat-locked  and  securely  nailed  under  laps, 
barbed-wire  nails  to  be  used,  ii  inches  in  size,  to  be  driven 
2  inches  apart.  The  plugging  of  walls  with  wood  or  lead,  or 
the  use  of  lag-screws,  will  not  be  permitted.  Tracks  or 
other  fittings  put  up  in  this  manner  will  not  be  approved. 

It  is  preferable  that  all  communicating  doors  be  arranged 
to  close  automatically  in  case  of  fire.  'See  the  illustration 
'ri,^-  '3^-  which  shows  a  sliding  door,  both  sides  of  the  open- 
ing being  similarly  protected.)  The  Xew  York  Hoard  of 
Fire  Underwriters  have  a  pamphlet  published  March,  1897. 
which  gives  full  instructions  for  the  construction  of  these 
doors,  shutters,  etc.  In  addition  to  the  particulars  already 
given,  they  require  that  sills  of  openings  be  made  of  stone  or 


Fie.  i"/. — OKNAM  i-;.\  IAI.  I'ANKI.  (IKII.I.K  KIKVATHH   FRONTS,  CKVIKAI    I!ANK 

Bt'ILDlMJ. 


HIGH    Ol-'UCE-B  U1LD1NGS. 


321 


iron,  and  when  walls  are  over  if>  inches  in  thickness  that 
brackets  for  holding  tracks  be  firmly  bolted  to  the  brick  wall, 
both  sides,  by  expansion  bolts,  the  tracks  to  be  placed  at  an 


incline  not  less  than  ;'  to  ]  inch  to  the  foot,  and  at  such  a 
height  that  the  door  when  closed  will  rest  firmly  on  the  sill. 
which  is  to  project  ^\  inches  bevond  the  tace  ot  the  wall. 

(  )utside  shutters  which  arc  generally  i»l;iced  at   the  win- 
dows of  three  or  four  stories  above  the  adjoining  property 


322  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRL'CTIOX   OF 

are  made  of  ^  x  2]  in.  wrought-iron  frames,  with  cross-bars 
of  the  same  material,  and  covered  with  Xo.  16  crimped  sheet 
iron,  being  suspended  from  cast-iron  shutter-eyes  built  in 
when  the  wall  is  constructed. 

Doors  and  shutters  of  the  same  style  are  provided  to 
bulkheads  and  roof-houses. 

Bulkheads  on  Roof. — These  roof-houses  are  invariably 
constructed  of  steel  tees,  channels,  1  beams,  and  angles 
placed  from  3  to  5  feet  apart  and  tilled  in  between  with  3-inch 
hollow  terra-cotta  blocks,  plastered  on  the  inside  and  cov- 
ered on  the  outside  with  metal  clapboarding  either  of  gal- 
vanized iron  or  copper. 

Hanging  Ceiling  in  Boiler-room. — The  ceiling  over  the 
boilers  of  the  Central.  Bank 'Building  is  formed  by  2  >'•  2  in. 
tees,  set  25  inches  on  centres,  suspended  from  the  floor- 
beams  by  iron  straps  12  in.  below.  a.nd  filled  in  between  on 
all  sides  with  asbestos  blocks,  an  air-cushion  being  thus  pro- 
vided to  keep  the  heat  from  the  floor  above. 

False  Furring. — False  furring,  made  either  of  wire  cloth 
simply,  or  of  light  steel  angles  and  tees  cavered  with  wire 
cloth,  will  be  required  to  a  great  extent  in  such  places  as 
halls,  corridors,  vestibules,  and  all  large  rooms  where  col- 
umns, girders,  and  beams 'cannot  be  covered  with  terra-cotta 
1  ilocks  or  masonry. 

Skylights  and  Sheet-metal  l]*ork. — The  work  under  this 
head  includes  skylights,  bulkhead  coverings,  louvres,  cor- 
nices, and  flashing. 

The  skylights  over  elevator  shafts,  stairways,  etc..  arc 
generally  made  with  light  steel  tee  ribs  2  o.r  3  inches  in 
depth,  placed  u  to.  16  inches  on  centres,  and  covered  with 
galvanized  metal  or  copper.  The  skylights  have  condensa- 
tion-gutters on  the  under  side  of  ribs,  and  caps  on  top  to  hold 
d<  >wn  the  s/lass. 


FIG.   139.— ORNAMENTAL   ELEVATUK  CAR,    "  CKNTKAI.   HANK    H 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  325 

If  the  bulkhead  is  of  sufficient  height,  the  ventilating 
louvres  are  placed  in  its  side  instead  of  in  the  skylight. 

If  copper  is  used,  16  oz.  weight  per  foot  is  the  proper 
gauge.  The  same  gauge  is  used  for  all  roof-flashings. 

Skylights  which  are  placed  at  the  bottom  of  light-courts 
or  where  necessary  are  protected  by  galvanized-wire  screens 
of  Xo.  13  gauge  and  one-inch  mesh. 

The  main  cornices  of  our  better  buildings  at  this  writing 
have  adopted  terra-cotta  or  stone,  instead  of  metal.  (See 
remarks  upon  Terra-cotta.) 

Tcrra-cottu  for  Steel  Skeleton  Buildings. — \Y.  L.  B.  Jenny, 
architect,  in  the  Brickbnildcr  says:  "  As  terra-cotta  is  the  best 
material  adapted  for  the  street  fronts  of  the  steel  skeleton, 
lapping"  around  the  horizontal  flanges  of  the  girders,  to 
which  it  is  easily  secured,  and  also  flreproofmg  the  steel,  the 
terra-cotta  cornice  is  now  in  general  use." 

The  essentials  are:  "  That  the  terra-cotta  shall  be  very 
securely  and  substantially  supported  and  anchored.  To  this 
end  the  steel  and  terra-cotta  must  be  designed  together.  All 
supports  and  all  anchors  must  be  shown  in  the  design,  that 
the  holes  in  the  terra-cotta  and  in  the  steel  may  be  made  in 
advance,  and  the  anchors  provided.  Usually  there  is  a 
portable  forge  at  the  building  for  heating  rivets,  where  the 
lengths  and  shapes  of  the  anchors  may  be  adjusted  to  tit  cor- 
rectly as  the  terra-cotta  is  set.  .  .  . 

"  Strong  Portland-cement  mortar  only  should  be  used. 
the  outer  one  or  two  inches  the  color  of  the  terra-cotta. 
Unless  Portland  cement  is  used,  the  mortar  joints  will  be  af- 
fected by  the  frost,  and  ere  long  fall  out,  and  water  will  enter. 
freeze  and  displace,  or  break  the  terra-cotta.  All  terra-cotta 
should  be  reasonably  straight  and  hard-burned.  It  is  desir- 
able whenever  practicable  to  consult  with  the  terra-cotta 
company  before  the  details  are  finally  settled,  as  they  must 


326  THE   PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION  OF 

furnish  and  set  the  material,  and  sometimes  very  valuable 
suggestions  can  be  obtained  from  them,  contributing  to  the 
stability  and  economy.  .  .  . 

"  An  old  French  professor  in  the  Ecole  Centrale  at  Paris 
\vas  fond  of  telling  his  students,  '  Xever  lose  the  opportunity 
to  consult  with  those  who  know  more  than  you  on  any  sub- 
ject, and  remember  that  an  intelligent  foreman  often  pos- 
sesses practical  knowledge  on  some  minor  points  not  found 
in  the  books  that  may  be  of  great  benefit  to  the  professional 
architect  and  engineer.'  ' 

This  is  quite  likely  to  be  true  in  terra-cotta  cornices. 
The  terra-cotta  must  be  moulded,  baked,  and  set;  and  if  the 
facility  for  doing  these  three  things  is  constantly  kept  in 
view  in  designing  the  cornice,  the  most  substantial  and  the 
most  economical  cornice  will  be  obtained. 

It  is  often  easy  to  add  to  the  stability  and  to  diminish  the 
cost  by  chances  that  do  not  injure  the  architectural  effect. 

The  terra-cotta  used  in  the  Central  Bank  Building  was  of 
a  color  to  match  the  brick,  and  used  (as  shown  in  a  previous 
chapter)  for  the  main  cornice,  sills,  belt-courses,  lintels,  mul- 
lions.  caps,  and  panels.  The  material  was  delivered  at  the 
building  when  needed,  marked  and  set  complete  as  the  build- 
ing progressed.  For  a  more  exhaustive  treatment  of  the 
following  materials  and  masonry  we  refer  the  reader  to  Mr. 
Kidder's  "  Building  Construction."  Part  I.,  in  which  he 
treats  of  masonry,  stonework,  plastering,  etc. 

IJrick  and  Stone  ]\'ork. — Of  brickwork  little  if  anything 
need  be  said.  For  high  buildings  the  lighter-colored  bricks 
seem  to  be  preferred. 

( )f  the  stonework  we  mention  first  the  granite  base- 
stones  resting  upon  the  concrete  foundation-beds.  These 
are  made  of  a  size  in  proportion  to  the  load,  the 
practical  requirements  being  that  the  blocks  shall  be 


Fa;.    140.  —  ELEVATOR  CAR.    LORD'S  COTKT   BUILDING. 


327 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  329 

cut  to  a  given  size  and  even  thickness,  top  and  bottom 
bed  to  have  a  hammered  surface,  sides  rough-pointed,  and 
each  stone  to  have  a  hole  for  the  insertion  of  a  lewis.  These 
stones  should  not  be  less  than  18  inches  thick,  and  be  well 
bedded  in  Portland  cement. 

Milestone. — All  walls  above  roof,  if  not  capped  with  terra- 
cotta, should  have  bluestone.  For  all  window-sills  and  lin- 
tels on  party-walls  and  courts  it  is  practicable  and  economi- 
cal to  use  bluestone.  All  beams  and  girders  resting  upon 
walls  should  also  have  bluestone  templets,  the  size  and  thick- 
ness depending  upon  the  weight  to  be  carried. 

Specification  Requirements  for  the  Front  Cininitc-^'ork  in 
the  Central  Bank  Building. — The  material  will  be  of  light 
granite.  \York  on  all  surfaces  with  a  ten-hammer  busher 
(sample  of  stone  and  axing  to  be  approved.) 

Granite-work  is  colored  on  elevations  and  sections. 

The  full  width  of  building  on  Broadway  front  and  full 
depth  of  building  on  Pearl  Street,  all  the  parts  shown  above 
sidewalk  line  to  first-story  sill-course  inclusive,  architraves 
to  two  entrance-doors  on  Broadway;  also  all  work  on  Pearl 
Street  front  shown  below  sidewalk  line  to  basement-area 
level.  To  include  sills,  lintels,  and  mullions  to  windows, 
steps  and  sills  to  main-entrance  doorway. 

All  face-stone  and  all  projecting  quoins  and  jambs  will  be 
of  ashlar,  to  be  of  thickness  figured;  all  granite  to  rest  on 
walls  as  shown  on  :,!-inch  detail  drawing's.  Joints  will  be  of 
uniform  size,  not  to  exceed  3-10  in-  ()n  f<l(^  and  j  in.  on 
back  of  stone. 

All  granite  to  have  full  and  true  beds,  and  bind  into  brick 
and  stone  work.  Anv  stone  which  mav  crack  or  break  lie- 
fore  the  final  completion  of  the  building,  or  which  may  show 
any  defects,  to  be  removed  and  replaced  bv  a  new  and  per- 
fect stone,  without  anv  extra  cost  to  the  owner. 


33O  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

All  granite-work  to  be  thoroughly  anchored  and 
clamped;  clamps  and  anchors  to  be  furnished  by  other  par- 
ties, this  contractor  setting  same. 

The  sizes  of  stone,  joints,  cuts,  etc.,  are  fully  shown  upon 
the  4-inch  scale  and  full-size  drawings,  and  must  be  strictly 
followed. 

This  contractor  must  provide  all  men  necessary  at  the 
building  to  do  all  required  fitting  of  his  stonework  to  skele- 
ton frame.  Also  all  cutting  and  jobbing  for  other  me- 
chanics. 

All  wood  centres  and  uprights  for  openings  will  be  fur- 
nished by  other  parties  as  required. 

This  contractor  will  carefully  cover  and  protect  with 
white-pine  wood  all  stone  sills,  corners,  carvings,  and  all 
other  exposed  parts  of  his  work  from  the  time  of  erection  to 
the  completion  of  the  building. 

All  moulded  work  to  be  run  sharp  and  true  and  axed  as 
lor  face- work. 

Carving  will  be  done  by  skilled  carvers  at  building  from 
models  furnished  by  this  contractor  and  approved  by  archi- 
tect. All  sills  to  have  wash,  drips,  and  lugs  cut.  All  cor- 
nices and  sill-courses  to  have  wash  and  drips  cut  on  same. 

This  contractor  will  be  required  to  furnish  his  own  putty- 
mortar  for  pointing,  and  Lafarge  cement  for  setting  stone- 
work and  facing  up  the  same. 

(  )n  the  completion  of  the  building,  and  immediately  after 
the  upper  part  of  the  building  is  cleaned  down,  this  contrac- 
tor will  remove  all  boxing  and  protections  to  his  work,  and 
clean  down  the  granite-work,  using  water  and  steel-wire 
brushes,  pointing  the  entire  work,  removing  and  replacing 
any  broken  or  defective  work,  leaving  the  whole  perfect  on 
completion. 

flustering. — We   have   eliminated   liiuc  plaster   from   our 


I-'lii.    141.  —  Dl-.IAli.    OK     El.KVATuK     [''ROMS, 


HIGH  OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  333 

large  buildings,  and  instead  are  using  improved  wall  plasters, 
such  as  "  Acme,"  "  Adamant,"  and  "  King's  Windsor  Ce- 
ment dry  mortar." 

The  Central  Bank  Building  was  plastered  with  "  King's 
Windsor  Cement."  This  is  a  dry  mortar,  in  which  certain 
chemicals  are  mixed  with  Xova  Scotia  gypsum  of  a  superior 
quality  to  form  the  cement,  and  the  mortar  is  made  by  mix- 
ing with  the  cement  washed  and  kiln-dried  pit  sand  and  as- 
bestos fibre,  all  the  materials  being  weighed  and  uniformly 
mixed  by  special  machinery. 

The  Adamant  is  a  chemical  preparation. 

The  Acme  cement  plaster  is  produced  by  calcining  the 
natural  earth  at  a  high  degree  of  heat  (about  (>oo°  Fahr. ), 
which  rids  the  material  of  not  only  the  free  moisture,  but 
also  the  combined  moisture. 

Their  principal  advantages  lie  in  their  uniformity  in 
strength  and  quality,  greater  hardness  and  tenacity,  freedom 
from  pitting,  less  weight,  saving  in  time  required  for  making 
and  drying  the  plaster,  minimum  danger  from  frost,  and 
greater  resistance  to  fire  and  water. 

For  the  brick  walls  in  the  Central  Bank  Building  two 
coats  were  applied;  three  coats  were  given  to  ceilings,  tire- 
proof  partitions,  wire  lath,  etc.  This  cement  was  used  ex- 
tensively throughout  the  building  from  cellar  to  roof.  The 
finishing  coat  and  all  plaster  cornices  were  of  hard-finished 
plaster  of  Paris,  cornices  being  carried  through  all  halls,  cor- 
ridors, and  rooms,  and  in  many  cases  heavily  moulded. 

Interior  Marble  }]'ork. — As  used  in  these  buildings  ilii- 
includes  all  marble  for  plumbing  in  toilet-rooms  and  for 
wash-basins  in  offices:  and  marble  wainscoting  and  mosaic 
floors  in  all  halls,  corridors,  and  toilet-rooms.  For  the 
plumbing  work  the  basin  slabs  in  rooms  are  made  of  i  j-inch 
pieces,  with  hole  for  I  I  to  14  inch  to  i^  to  i~  inch  1>a<in». 


334  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

To  this  is  furnished  a  floor  slab,  backs,  wall  linings,  and 
aprons,  the  slab  being  supported  on  the  outer  edge  by  metal 

legs. 

The  partition  slabs  of  the  closets  in  toilet-rooms  are  from 
(>  ft.  9  in.  to  7  ft.  high,  of  i]-inch  marble,  capped  with  1 1-inch 
moulded  pieces.  They  are  placed  about  2  ft.  9  in.  to  3  feet 
centres,  and  extend  from  the  wall  to  jamb  of  small  flap-door 
— from  4  ft.  6  in.  to  5  ft.  At  the  back  of  each  of  these  small 
rooms  6  inches  should  be  allowed  for  the  marble  lining  and 
air-pipes. 

Wainscoting  in  toilet -rooms  should  extend  on  all  sides 
and  l)e  about  5  feet  high;  for  the  corridors  4  ft.  6  inches  high 
will  be  sufficient,  the  cap  member  acting  as  a  sill  for  the  win- 
dows of  the  partitions. 

The  tanks  for  each  individual  closet  have  marble  cover- 
ings 4  inch  thick. 

In  connection  with  the  corridors  (which  are  generally 
covered  with  marble  mosaic)  there  should  be  marble  saddles 
to  all  doors  opening  into  these  rooms,  and  base-blocks  for 
the  door  trim. 

The  execution  of  the  entire  work  should  be  as  follows  : 

All  wainscoting,  plumbing,  marble  partitions,  base- 
blocks,  and  saddles  to  have  exposed  surfaces,  edges,  and 
mouldings  rubbed  and  highly  polished;  all  set  in  plaster  of 
Paris  and  cement,  with  close  joints,  and  free  from  stains  of 
anv  kind. 

The  plumber  and  the  marble  contractor  must  work  to- 
gether in  the  setting  of  plumbing  marble  and  fixtures.  All 
work  to  be  cleaned  down  and  any  broken  or  damaged  work 
removed  and  made  good,  and  all  parts  of  the  work  left  whole 
and  perfect  on  completion. 

Interior  Trim  and  ]]*oodi^ork. — All  the  stock  for  the  in- 
terior trim  and  woodwork  of  the  Central  Hank  F»uilding  is 


i.VNK    <>]•'    LoMMKKCK     BfII.DI.NG. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  337 

of  the  best  quality  quartered  oak.  and  includes  the  following: 
Hack  lining  throughout  all  window  jambs  not  plastered; 
architrave  for  all  windows  and  doors;  caps  on  top  of  wooden 
cornices  on  all  communicating  doors  between  offices;  base 
throughout  all  offices  /•','  >  ^  in.,  with  necking  4.]  in.  and 
base-mould  I  :J  in.  'Idle  interior  work  includes  all  sash, 
doors,  chair-rail,  and  picture-mouldings.  All  communicat- 
ing doors  have  saddles  6  x  ;•  in.,  moulded.  The  stair-rail, 
water-closet  doors,  and  freight-elevator  doors  are  also  in- 
cluded. 

The  work  before  being  put  in  place  was  all  prepared  at 
the  mill,  framed  together  where  practical,  stained,  tilled,  and 
given  one  coat  of  white  shellac  before  delivery.  The  back 
was  also  painted  one  coat  of  metallic  paint.  All  woodwork 
in  cellar  is  of  white  pine,  painted. 

1' A  I. XT  ING. 

Painting  Iron  and  Steel. — On  exposure  to  the  atmosphere 
all  metals  soon  lose  their  lustre;  they  oxidize  by  absorbing 
oxygen  from  the  air.  Iron  and  steel  become  coated  with  a 
layer  of  hydrated  sesquioxide  of  iron  or  rust.  The  change 
takes  place  rapidly,  every  drop  of  rain  causing  a  rust  stain, 
and  hence  only  when  free  from  rust  can  metal  be  successfully 
painted.  \Yhen  the  oxidizing  process  has  once  commenced. 
its  progress  may  for  a  time  be  interrupted  by  painting,  but  it 
progresses  slowly  even  under  the  paint,  the  latter  finally 
peeling  off,  together  with  a  layer  of  rust. 

The  principal  point  in  painting  steel  or  iron  is  the  prim- 
ing coat,  and  for  this  to  be  effected  the  paint  must  be  capable 
of  drying-  quickly  and  thoroughly,  be  thinly  fluid  and  lightly 
applied,  so  that  all  inequalities  of  the  surface  to  be  painted 
may  be  covered.  For  ordinary  purposes  we  believe  there  is 
no  better  paint  to  apply  than  red  lend  mixed  with  linseed-oil. 


338  THE   P LA XX IXC,    AXD    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

one  coat  to  be  put  on  at  the  works  and  another  when  the 
iron  is  erected,  riveted,  and  bolted  up  complete  at  the  build- 
ing. 

Red  lead  or  litharge  is  protoxide  of  lead  produced  by  ex- 
posing' melted  lead  to  a  current  of  air.  It  fuses  readily,  and 
on  cooling  forms  a  mass  consisting  of  glistering,  semi- 
transparent,  yellow  or  reddish-yellow  scales.  It  generally 
contains  more  or  less  red  lead,  whence  the  variation  in  color. 

Red  lead  has  density,  weight,  body.  To  get  the  heavv 
pigment  thoroughly  incorporated  with  the  lighter  raw  lin- 
seed-oil, for  the  second  coat,  put  in  considerable  red  lead 
and  comparatively  little  oil.  By  so  doing  the  particles  of 
red  lead  will  not  settle  out  of  the  vehicle  either  in  the  pot  or 
on  the  surface,  and  greater  covering  will  be  had  than  in  a 
thin  mixture. 

For  the  priming  coat,  and  to  sustain  the  heavy  particles 
of  red  lead,  the  introduction  of  a  small  quantity  of  japan 
made  with  raw  linseed-oil,  or  the  substitution  of  boiled  oil 
for  the  raw  oil,  is  desirable  to  prevent  running.  From  prac- 
tical test  it  seems  that  to  each  gallon  of  linseed-oil 20 to 30 Ibs. 
of  pure  red  lead  should  be  used.  There  seems  to  be  no  par- 
ticular formula  for  mixing.  This  is  generally  governed  by 
the  temperature,  moisture,  mode  of  mixing,  and  skill  of  the 
painter. 

The  use  of  lampblack  introduces  a  new  element  in  the 
color,  giving  it  a  chocolate  shade:  and  some  of  the  railroads 
in  their  specifications  state  that  the  "  paint  used  should  be  of 
the  best  grade  of  pure  red  lead  and  linseed-oil.  Last  coat 
red  lead,  linseed-oil,  and  lampblack;  one  ounce  of  lampblack 
to  the  pound  of  red  lead,  mixed  fresh  every  day." 

Lampblack  retards  the  natural  drying  properties  of  red 
lead,  and  a  small  quantity  of  japan  is  recommended  as  a  dryer 
and  as  a  binder  for  materials  of  such  diverse  specific  gravity. 


H1C.H   OFFICE~BL'ILDL\'GS.  339 

At  the  present  day  there  is  an  unlimited  number  of  manu- 
factured or  patent  paints  put  upon  the  market  for  painting- 
iron. 

\Ve  are  able  to  give  the  analyses  of  a  few,  furnished  by  a 
competent  person,  with  the  percentages  of  the  various  in- 
gredients. 

An  Asfhaltum  faint  contained — 

Volatile   thinner   (turpentine) 4-5^ 

Saponifiable  oil   (probably  linseed) 

Pigment    . 


The  pigment  contained — 

( )xide  of  iron 05.  i  5 

Sulphate  of  lime 34-^5 


Sample  contained  no  asphalt. 

A  Carbon  l\ii^t  contained — 

White   lead i  />3 

Sulphate  of  lime io.;i 

Carbonate  of  lime '4-5- 

Insoluble    matter    consisting    largelv    <">f 

oxide  of  iron 7,v4° 


An  .Inti-Rusl  I\tint  contained — 

Volatile  thinner  (turpentine) 33-77 

Saponifiable   oil    (probably   linseed,   con- 
taining lead  and  mangane-e  soaps).'.  .  .      37-73 
Pigment    jS.;o 

100.00 


34O  THE   PLANNING    AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

The  pigment  contained:  Lead  compounds  4.92  per  cent, 
sulphate  of  lime  4.50,  Venetian  red  90.48=100.  The 
Venetian  red  contained  oxide  of  iron  40.82  per  cent,  silica 
44.45,  and  water  5.21. 

These  oil-paints,  as  will  be  seen,  consist  of  some  pow- 
dered pigment,  are  fairly  durable,  and  some  of  them  very 
lasting  on  wood;  but  on  iron  they  have  not  proved  to  be  so. 
and  experience  has  shown  that  the  metallic  oxide  acts  as  a 
carrier  of  oxygen  to  the  underlying  iron,  causing  it  to  rust 
instead  of  protecting  it. 

In  many  buildings  where  the  frame  is  of  steel  and  iron, 
asphalt  put  on  hot  is  frequently  used;  but  from  o.ur  little 
experience  in  that  line  we  believe  in  the  course  of  time  it  be- 
comes hard  and  useless,  and  in  many  cases  the  asphalt  is 
nothing  but  coal-tar. 

Painting  of  the  Interior  IVork. — The  following  painting 
specifications  for  the  Central  Bank  Building  cover  all  the  re- 
quirements for  the  interior  of  an  office-building. 

All  materials  to  be  the  best  of  their  respective  kinds, 
and  at  all  times  subject  to  inspection  for  approval  or  rejec- 
tion. 

The  workmanship  to  be  of  the  best  and  most  substantial 
quality  of  each  of  its  respective  kinds,  and  will  be  held  under 
this  contract  to  include  the  service  of  all  materia.1,  tools, 
labor,  scaffolding,  etc.,  and  everything  requisite  to  complete 
entirely  the  building;  also  all  and  adequate  protectio.il  to 
life  and  limb. 

All  interior  doors  and  windows  on  all  floors  will  have 
moulded  trim  and  caps  where  shown. 

jambs  to  all  doors  and  interior  windows.  Windows  in 
outside  walls  throughout  will  have  a  moulded  trim,  apron, 
and  stool  (but  no  back-lining)  except  where  shown  on  plans. 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  34! 

Base  throughout  offices  10]  in.  high  with  a  j;'-mch  base- 
mould. 

Base  in  all  corridors  and  lavatories  will  he  of  marble. 

The  cellar  woodwork,  also  all  window-frames  and  sash  in 
outside  walls  throughout  building  on  all  floors,  will  be  of 
white  pine  (except  sash  on  first  story,  Broadway  and  Pearl 
Street  fronts). 

First-story  hall,  corridor,  vestibule,  front  doors  and  sash, 
also  banking-room  will  be  of  mahogany. 

Trim  in  banking-room,  hall,  and  corridor  on  first  floor 
will  be  of  marble. 

The  remaining  portion  of  woodwork  throughout  build- 
ing, except  where  otherwise  mentioned,  will  be  of  quartered 
i  >ak. 

The  exterior  parts  of  white-pine  woodwork  on  all  win- 
daw-frames  and  sashes  throughout  the  building  on  street 
fronts,  from  cellar  to  fifteenth  story  inclusive,  also  on  party- 
walls  and  two  light-courts,  to  be  painted  three  (3)  coats  of 
color  as  will  be  selected  by  owner  or  his  representative. 

The  pulley-stiles  of  all  window-frames  to  be  given  one 
good  coat  of  raw  linsce.d-oil. 

The  galvanixcd-iron  work,  such  as  louvres,  the  top  and 
under  side  of  skylights  over  stairs  and  elevators,  also  ven- 
tila.tors  and  vertical  covering  of  bulkheads  over  stairs,  ele- 
vators, and  tank-house,  all  to  be  given  two  (_>)  coats  of  color 
as  directed. 

ILvtci'ior  Ironwork. — All  the  iron  beams  of  the  vault  and 
sidewalk  construction  exposed  to  view,  including  the  under 
side  of  patent  lights,  coal-covers,  tank,  door  to  elevator, 
tank-house,  and  stairs  on  root;  also  area  stairs,  area  railing, 
fascias.  sills  and  jambs  to  basement  windows  and  door:  also 
shutters  to  eleven  windows  on  sixth  floor  on  rartv-wall  lines. 


342  THE    PLA AWY<\ ~G    AXD    COXSTK  L'CTIOX    OF 

and  beam  bracing  across  light-courts  on  eleventh,  thirteenth, 
and  fifteenth  floor-levels  ;  also  cast-iron  work  in  connec- 
tion with  window-jambs,  mullions,  fascias,  and  sills  on  first 
story  in  the  two  light-courts.  Above  list  of  iron  and  metal 
work  to  be  painted  two  (2)  coats  of  color  as  will  be  directed. 

Interior  Ironwork. — The  main  stairs  from  basement  to 
roof,  and  bank  stairs  from  basement  to  mezzanine  floor;  also 
elevator-enclosure  for  five  passenger-elevators  from  first 
rloor  to  fifteenth  story  inclusive,  wdl  be  in  electro-bronze 
tinder  another  contract,  with  these  exceptions  : 

That  back  of  mullions  and  transoms  and  fascias  on  ele- 
vator sides  of  the  five  passenger-elevators  will  be  painted: 
also  the  store  stairs  from  cellar  to  first  floor  and  main  stairs 
from  cellar  to  basement  floor:  also  ironwork  on  both  sides 
of  floor-lights  in  basement  and  first  floor. 

All  interior  ironwork  in  five  passenger-elevators  and  one 
freight-elevator,  such  as  beams,  gtiides,  i'ascias,  back  of  mul- 
lions and  transoms,  saddles,  overhead  way  and  beams,  grat- 
ing, counterweight,  guides,  elevator-pits,  and  iambs,  etc.,  to 
freight-elevator:  also  cast-plate  to  shipping  entrance;  door 
to  boiler-flue  and  coal-vault:  also  all  cylinders  and  all  pipes 
connecting  with  elevator  machinery  in  shafts. 

The  iron  jambs  of  freight-elevator  in  corridor  side  to  be 
of  grained  oak. 

Above  list  of  interior  ironwork  to  be  painted  on  all  ex- 
posed surfaces  with  two  ( 2}  coats  of  color  as  will  be  directed. 

ll'oodeu  (iitidcs. — The  wooden  guides  to  elevators  to  be 
given  two  coats  of  paint. 

Xote:  This  contract  to  cover  the  painting  of  all  exposed 
plumbing  pipes,  leader-pipe-,  and  tire-lines;  all  to  have  two 
( j)  coats  <  f  rHors  <'^  \vill  be  directed. 

Interior  /;/'v  ll'oodisnrk. — All  interior  exposed  parts  of 
window-frames  aiid  white-pine  sashes  in  outside  walls  on 


///(///   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  343 

•each  floor  (except  pulley-stiles)  to  be  Drained  to  correspond 
with  finish  of  rooms  and  two  (2)  coats  of  Crockett's  or  other 
approved  varnish  applied,  the  last  coat  to  be  rubbed  as  speci- 
fied herein. 

In  cellar  the  pine  woodwork  to  be  painted  three  (3)  coats 
of  color  as  will  be  directed. 

Paint. — All  paint  used  in  this  work  to  be  of  pure  Atlantic 
white  lead,  mixed  with  pure  linseed-oil  in  such  colors  as  will 
be  directed. 

I  lardi^'ood. — All  oak  and  mahogany  used  in  this  building 
will  arrive  at  site  tilled,  stained,  and  have  one  coat  of  white 
shellac  and  the  back  of  all  woodwork  painted  one  coat. 

This  contract  is  to  cover  the  proper  protections  until  hard 
and  drv.  also  clean  and  sandpaper  where  required  and  when 
so  directed  before  varnishing. 

The  painter  to  touch  up  with  staining  coat  all  surface 
which  has  been  planed  ott  at  building;  also  putty-stop  all 
nail-holes  and  defects.  All  hardwood  work  herein  specified 
to  be  used  in  building  to  be  given  three  (3)  coats  of  Crock- 
ett's  varnish  or  equally  as  good,  the  last  coat  to  be  rubbed 
down  with  pumice-stone  and  crude  oil  to  a  dead  finish. 

Stair-rail. — All  stairs  will  have  a  moulded  hand-rail. 
Toilet-room  doors,  i -(X  in  number,  located  on  the  different 
floors.  Chair-rail,  picture-mould  around  walls  of  all  offices. 
Hardwood  saddles  to  all  doors  except  corridors. 

The  above  to  receive  same  finish  as  tor  hardwood  herein 
specified. 

Safct\  ]\'indo-^'  Appliances. — We  are  informed  by  the 
I'olice  Hoard  that  in  \ew  York  Citv  alone  the  number  ot 
deaths  resulting"  from  accidents  incidental  to  window-clean- 
ing during  the  period  1885  to  i8(;j>  averaged  fifty  per  year. 
On  account  of  the  great  height  ot  office-buildings,  the  opera- 
tion of  cleanmir  becomes  at  times  verv  ha/ardous.  To  rein- 


344  THE  PLANNING   AND    CONSTRUCTION   OF 

ccly  this  several  contrivances  are  now  in  use;  among  them  is 
one  which  should  be  generally  adopted,  by  which  the  sash  is 
swung  into  the  room. 

Revolving  Entrance-doors, — The  revolving  entrance-doors 
which  are  supplied  to  some  tall  buildings  must  now  be  con- 
sidered a  factor  in  their  equipment.  Of  the  many  merits 
claimed,  one  in  particular  is  the  complete  exclusion  of  all 
wind,  rain,  snow,  and  dust  during  storms  while  persons  are 
passing  in  and  out;  also  the  prevention  of  cold  draughts  in 
winter.  In  warm  weather  the  doors  are  folded  and  pushed 
to  one  side. 

Roofing. — Under  this  heading,  if  not  already  under  sheet- 
metal  work,  the  roofer  will  supply  the  Hashing,  which  is  of 
copper  and  is  set  around  all  walls,  bulkheads,  etc.  The 
under-flashing  should  be  I  5  inches  wide,  that  is,  6  inches  on 
roof  and  9  inches  turned  up  on  walls,  and  secured  to  the 
walls  with  drive-hooks.  Cap-flashing'  should  be  10  inches 
wide,  turned  in  wall  3  inches,  and  /  inches  down  the  wall 
over  the  under-flashing. 

Where  copper  flashing  comes  in  contact  with  any  galvan- 
ized-iron  work  it  should  be  connected  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
prevent  any  galvanic  action  taking  place.  The  roofing  con- 
tractor will  also  furnish  copper  pans  about  16  inches  square 
at  the  head  of  all  leaders. 

After  the  finished  concrete  is  set  on  roof,  a  layer  of  tar 
should  be  applied,  then  three-ply  tarred  felt-paper,  laid  with 
two  thirds  lap  and  one  third  exposed,  each  layer  cemented 
to  the  one  underneath;  then  cover  with  another  coat  of  tar. 

When  all  other  mechanics  are  finished  on  the  roof,  apply 
a  final  covering  (^f  three  layers  of  similar  felt  with  large  lap. 
properly  cemented  and  connected  with  flashing.  Cover  the 
above  felting  with  f>  x  9  x  i  in.  red  vitrified  tile,  laid  to  grades 
of  roof,  and  bedded  in  Portland  cement  and  grouted  with 


HIGH   OFFICE-BUILDINGS.  345 

the  cement  in  a  liquid  form.  Tiles  to  break  joints  laid  in  a 
line  and  straight,  the  joints  not  to  exceed  {  inch. 

The  tank-house  to  he  prepared  as  the  main  roof  and  cov- 
ered with  :','  inch  of  asphalt. 

Hardware. — The  introduction  of  locks  with  tlat  sheet- 
metal  keys  has  revolutionized  the  lock  industry  of  the 
L'nited  States  to  such  an  extent  that  every  lock-maker  is 
now  producing  flat-keyed  locks,  and  it  is  an  exception  to  see 
a  high  office-building  having  anything  but  the  latest  im- 
proved hardware  throughout.  The  handbooks  of  the  vari- 
ous hardware  companies  show,  in  the  most  effective  modern 
methods  of  illustration,  numbers  of  artistic  designs  and  prac- 
tical details  of  their  wares.  Many  of  the  patterns  shown  in 
their  books  are  designed  by  the  artists  of  the  companies,  and 
are  offered  to  the  public  in  an  open  market. 

IN   coxci.rsrox 

we  wish  to  state  that  a  few  items  have  been  omitted  as  being 
immaterial  to  our  subject,  and  with  respect  to  these  we  refer 
the  reader  to  books  on  Building:  Construction. 


.  Is  lite  class  of  work  put  /;/  ///;'//  office-building's  is 
of  the  first  order,  requiring  specially  skilled  workmen,  we 
hare  inserted,  for  tlie  be  tie  fit  of  those  /or  whom  I  his  book 
is  infolded,  and  for  all  concerned,  cards  of  a  few  of  the 
business  firms  w-Jio  hare  been  identified  with  the  con  - 
st ruction  of  the  various  buildings  illustrated. 


ENGINES,  DYNAMOS,  AND  ELECTRIC  WIRING, 
The    Brooklyn  Electric    Equipment 

ELECTRIC  AI,     CONTRACTORS. 

164-166    MONTAGUE    STREET. 


CENTRAL  NATIONAL   BANK  BUILDING.  -     JOHN    T.    WILLIAMS,   Architect. 
BROOKLYN  INSTITUTE  OF  ARTS,  McKiM,  MEAD  &    WHITE,  Architects. 

LORD  S  COURT  BUILDING,       -  JNO.   T.  WILLIAMS.  Architect. 

HUDSON  BUILDING,    -          -          -  CLINTON  &  RUSSELL.  Architects. 

NEW  YORK  WOOL   WARIHOUSE,        -  -      W.  B.   TUBBY,  Architect. 


T.     P.    GALLIGAN    &    SON, 
House  Movers  and  Contractors, 


OFF  in: 

IVINS    SYNDICATE    BUILDING.  _~o  _  . 

ASTORIA  HOTEL.  528  Bust   \  7th  Street, 

MANHATTAN    HOTEL. 

EMPIRE    BUILDING.  NEW       YORK 

NEW  YORK  LIFE   INSURANCE  CO. 

CENTRAL    BANK    BUILDING.  Telephone  Call,   im-iSth  St. 

Etc  .   etc.  Night  1828-381)1  St. 


JOHN  MCMILLAN, 
PLUMBER  AND  GAS-FITTER, 

.u>s    I.KXIXC ;  r<  >x    AVKXUK, 
NEW    YORK. 


EST1MA  y'A'.V  REFhRKNCHS:    Central  Bank  Building. 

Lord's  Court  Building. 
EXAMINATIONS.  Silk  Exchange  Building. 


HECLA  IRON-WORKS 

(Formerly   POULSON   &   EGER), 

Iron  Stairs,  Elevator  Enclosures  and  Cars, 

CAST  AND  GALl/ANO  BRONZE, 
BOWER-BARFF   AND    ELECTROPLATE    FINISHES 


IRON  STAIRWAY  IN  THE  NEW  YORK  CLEARING-HOUSE. 


OFFICE,   WORKS,   AND   EXHIBIT    ROOMS: 
.    10th,     llth,    and    12th    Sts.,    bet.  Wythe  Ave.  and   Berry  St. 

BROOKLYN,    NEW    YORK. 


JOHN    BOYLAND, 

PLASTERER, 


487    BROADWAY,    corner  of  BROOME   STREET, 


NEW   YORK. 


TELEPHONE  CONNECTION. 


References  : 

CENTRAL    BANK    BUILDING, 
ARISTON    BUILDING, 
Etc.,  etc. 


Applicable  io  old  or  new,  Power  Pldnts 
For  ddvantd$es  send  for pamp/i/ets. 

WARREN  WEBSTER  &co.    CHICAGO. 

•  ••  CAMDEN.N.J.  '  "          ^V 


This  system  is  in  use  in  the 
CENTRAL  BANK  BUILD- 
ING (see  pages  260  to  264  ot 
this  book)  and  many  other  tall 
buildings  in  the  principal  cities 
of  the  United  States.  A  list 
of  references  furnished  on  ap- 
plication. 


ELECTRIC  ELEVATOR  SIGNALS, 


New  York  Telephone  Building. 
Standard  Oil  Building, 


Commercial  Cable  Building, 
Hotel  Royalton, 


ELEVATOR    SUPPLY    AND     REPAIR     COMPANY. 


136    Liberty    Street. 

.'•I'f  lincrifition   rt 


CI-MC;AOO  : 

36    West    Monroe    Street. 

-j?  \    cf  thh  Awi. 


MULTIPLEX  STEEL-PLATE 

FIRE-PROOF  CONSTRUCTION 


tt  H  M  H  M  MH  H I 


For   Floors,    Ceilings,    Roofs,    and    Partitions, 

Stri»ii£t'st  Jiu1  nio^t  economical  srstt'ni  in  /<><•.      S,\'  /Vfiy  i  =,*  of  //'/*  book. 

S(  )I  K    M  \NTKAi:  I  I'KKKS  : 

THE   BERGER   MANUFACTURING    CO..  Caitun.    Ohio. 


NEW    YORK    OFFICE' 

210   BAST  23d  STREET. 

Telephone,   No.  2632   i8tn   Street. 


CHICAGO    A&tr.CV. 

ILLINOIS  ROOFING  AND  SUPPLY  CO., 

2O3    1..AKK    S  I  KKK  r. 

Telephone,    Main  3880. 


"A  System  of  Fireproofing  that  is  FIRE-PROOF." 

1  he  recent  severe  fire  and  water  tests  made  by  the  New  York  Building 
and  Fire  Departments  have  proved  conclusively  that  the 

Roebling  Fire=Proof  Floors 
are  absolutely  fire=piroof. 

The  superiority  of  concrete  over  hollow  tile  as  a  fire- and  water-resisting 
material  has  been  established  by  practical  tests,  and  fully  confirmed  by  a 
comparative  test  of  the  two  materials  made  by  the  Building  Department 
of  New  York  City  on  November  19  1897. 

The  Roebling  Standard  Wire  Lathing  with  the  solid  woven-in 
rib  is  used  exclusively  in  the  Roebling  System  of  Fireproofing. 

Estimates  for  Floors.  Ceilings,  Partitions,  etc.,  and  for  furring  and  applying  wire  lathing- 
to  Columns  and  Girders,  and  for  Cornice  Cove' and  Ornamental  Plaster  work,  furnished 
promptly  on  application. 

Contracts  made  for  the  erection  of  all  work  of  this  character.  Send  for  illustrated  circu 
lar  on  tire-proof  construction,  tire  and  water  tests,  etc. 

(See   pages  138-142  for  detailed  description  of  the  Roebling  System,  i 

JOHN    A.    ROEBLING  S   SONS   CO., 

117-119   Liberty   St..   New  York  City.  TDPMTnv       V       I 

171-173  Lake  St..  Chicago,   III.  IKtlMtNN,    >.    J. 

25-27   Fremont  St..   San   Francisco.    Cal. 


The  Johnson  System  of 
Temperature  Regulation. 

Extensively  used  in  the  United  States  in  public-  and  office 
buildings,  libraries,  colleges,  schools,  and  residences,  for 
regulating  automatically  the  temperature  of  rooms  warmed 
by  all  systems  of  heating. 

Over  30,000  Thermostats 

have    been    installed,    and    fully   60,000  diaphragm   steam- 
valves.       Correspondence    solicited    and   descriptive    cata- 
logue furnished  upon  application. 
(See  pages  273-277  of  this  book.) 

JOHNSON  TEMPERATURE  REGULATING  CO., 

240     KOLJKTM     . \VKXl  IK, 

NEW    YORK. 


PENCOYD  IRON  WORKS. 


PKRCIVAI.   RDHERTS,   /Vv.wV/Vw/. 

I'ERIMVAI.   ROHERTS,  Jr.,   /"/«•-/'>-<•.> /',/,•»/. 
P.    W.    RoHERTS,    Treasurer. 

FREDERICK    SNARE,   Secretary. 


A.  &  P.  ROBERTS   COMPANY. 


M ANU FACT TREKS     OF 


Open=Hearth  Steel  Bars  and 

Structural  Shapes, 
Car  and  Engine  Axles. 

DKSKiNKRS   AM)    HflLDF.RS   OF 

BRIDGES,  VIADUCTS,  TRAIN=SHEDS, 
ELEVATED  RAILROADS, 


ALL  STEEL  STRUCTURES. 


01    I    If    /..S •; 


261    South   Fourth    Street,    -  Philadelphia,   Pa. 

American    Surety   Building,  New  York. 

27    State    Street,      -         -  -  Boston,  Mass. 


TERRY  &  TENCH  CONSTRUCTION  CO., 

1945    SEVENTH    AVENUE,    NEW    YORK, 

Contractors   for  and    Kreetors   of 

STRUCTURAL    STEEL. 

THE   FOLLOWING   STRUC'l  I'RES  HAVE   BEEN   ERECTED   BY   US: 

NY    C.  &  H.   R.   R.   Four-track  Drawbridge  crossing  Harlem    River; 
Central  Bank  Building  ; 
MiUs  House   No.    i ; 

Hudson  Building,  32  and  34  Broadway  ; 

Anderson  Building,   12,  14,  and  16  John  Street; 
Grand  Central  Depot  ; 
and  many  others. 

LONG  DISTANCE  TELEPHONE.  SHOP,    117  HARLEM. 

OFFICE  AND  RESIDENCE.    113  HARLEM 

TELEPHONE,  840  SPRING. 

13LAKE    &    WILLIAMS, 

STEAM    AND    ELECTRICAL 

ENGINEERS   AND    CONTRACTORS, 

362  AND  364  WEST  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK. 

ELECTKIC,    I'OH'KIt,    HK.ITIXG,    A  \ />     l'I.\TI  LITI  \<i     A  I' I'. I /{ATI'S. 


PATENT     SYSTEM      OF 

FIRE-PROOF   FLOORS. 


(ILLUSTRATED  ON   IAGK  is;  OK  THI?.  HOOK 


JOHN  W.  RAPP,   Patentee  and  Contractor. 

WORKS:    311   TO  327    EAST  94TH   STREET,    NEW   YORK. 

/•'or   information   ni/t/ress   Agents  : 

MOFFAT  &  HEWITT,  F.  E.  BAILEY, 

156  Fifth   Avenue,  NEW  YORK  CITY.      I5th  and  Market  Sts.,  PHILADELPHIA,  PA. 


winners  OFFICE-BUG  DIRECTORY. 

A  Directory  havir.g  tenants'  names  placed  under  their  initial  letters  and 
in  correct  alphabetical  position.  The  mechanical  arrangement  is  such 
that  added  names  ;>re  placed  correctly  and  quickly. 

The  following  illustration  is  our  Directory  in  the  Central  Hank 
Building.  It  is  enclosed  by  a  simple  and  effective  marble  frame,  furnished 
by  owners. 


Manhattan  Life  Ins.  Building.  New  York.  Fisher  Building,  Chicago. 

Bowling  Green  "  "       "  Reliance     " 

St.   Paul  Masonic    Temple, 

Lord's   Court  Old  Colony  Building. 

Queen's  Insurance         "  Stock   Exchange 

And  Fifty-four  other  Buildings  in  And  Fifty-eight  other  Bui/dings  in 

New  York.  Chicago. 

Also,  to  Thirty-five  Buildings  in  ot^or  Cities. 

•rJ 

Catalogue    and    full    information     mailed    mi     rf<|ne*t. 

TABLET   AND   TICKET   CO., 

381  BROADWAY,  NEW  YORK.      87  89  FRANKLIN  ST.,  CHICAGO,  ILL. 


The  name  of 


is  a  guarantee 


Light  and  Power 

for 

OKics-Buildirgs 


Westingfnouse         Compactness,  perfect    ventilation,  lowest   tem- 
pi-      ,  perature,  highest  efficiency, 


type 
and 
Kodak 

Generators 
Save 

Space 
and 

Money. 


Fewest  parts,  least  wear,  least  attention. 
Light  and  power  from  one  circuit. 

Westinghouse   Electric  Apparatus  the  standard 
everywhere.    Electric  Elevators,  Cranes,  Hoists. 

Westinghouse  Electric 

and   Mfg.  Co. 

Pittsburgh,   New   York, 

and  all  principal  cities. 


JAMES  BMGGS  &  COMPANY, 

9    DEY    STREET,    NEW    YORK, 

MAM'KAf  I  L'UKKs    i  >V     I  UK 

McClave  Shaking,  Dumping,  and  Cut-off  Grate-Bar, 

FOR    BURNING    CHEAP    FUEL   5U CCESSFL'LLY. 

By  its  use  you  can  clean  your  fires  from  the  bottom  and  without  opening  the  fire-doors 


MCCLAVE  GRATE  COMPLETE  IN  TWO  SECTIONS. 


Sprague  Electric  Company. 

GENERAL  OFFICE:  WORKS: 

20-22  BROAD  STREET,  WATSESSING,  N.  J. 

Q>mmcrcial  Cable  Building. 

Builders  of  twelve  sizes  and  types  of  ELECTRIC 
ELEVATORS,  both  Drum  and  Multiple 
Sheave,  Single,  Double  and  Triple  Deck. 

These  machines  are  manufactured  to  meet  all 
commercial  elevator  requirements,  from  the  lowest 
to  the  highest 

Among  the  equipments  m  buildings  from  5  Also  representative  buildings  throughout  the 

to  21  stories  in  height  and  *mh  from  2  to  22        United  States  and  Canada,  viz.  . 
machines  each,  are  the  following  in  New  York 

Boon/  of  Trade  Building,  Chicago. 

Postal  Telegraph  Building,  Guarantee                                       Buffalo. 

Commercial  Cable  Building,  Canada  Life  Insurance  Bldg.,  Montreal. 

Astoria  Hotel,  City  Hall  &  Court  House.  Salt  Lake  City. 

Astor  Court  Building,  City  Hall  &  Court  House.       Minneapolis. 

Manhattan  Hotel,  State  Mutual  Life  Assur.  Bldg.  .Worcester. 

New  York  Telephone  Company's  Building,  Union  Trust  Building,                     Detroit. 

Queen  Insurance  Company' ' s  Building,  Majestic 

Lord's  Court  Building,  Currier  Bank     "              -    Los  Angeles, 

Syndicate  Building,  Wilcox 

Wadsworth  Building,  Homer  Laugh/in  Building, 

Exchange  Court  Building,  Parrott                       "        San  Francisco. 

R.  G    Dun  Building.  Examiner 

Young  Men ' s  Christian  Association  Bldg. ,  Academy  of  Music, 

Park  Row  Syndicate  Building,  Safe  Deposit 

Gerken  Building,  Hotel  Walton,       -                   Philadefyhia. 

Siegel  Cooper  Department  Store,  Senate  Wing  U.  S    Capitol,  Washington. 

W.  W.  Beebe  s  Warehouses,  Public  Printer  s  Building, 

Cushman  Building,  State  House,                                     Albany. 

Gill  Building.  Boston  Globe,                                  Boston. 

During  the  past  year  many  automatically  controlled 
Electric  House  Elevators  have  been  installed, 
among  them  being  one  in  the  Executive  Mansion, 
Washington.  D  C..  also  ;n  the  residences  of 

J.  Pierpont  Morgan.     -     New  York  City.  Geo.  S.  Bowdin   -            -  New  York  City. 

William  Waldorf  Astor,         "        "       "  Mrs    Almeric  Paget. 

Dr.  Francis  Kinmcutt.          '  Dr.  James.    - 

George  R.  Reed.  W.  E.  Bliss. 

William  A.  Reed,  Joseph  Eastman, 

R.  Fulton  Cutting,    -  A.  M.  Byers.                    -  Pittsburgh.  Pa. 

fiobt.  Olyphant.  Wm.  Flinn, 

Western  National  Bank  Building,  New  York  City 

Harmome  Club 


KING'S  WINDSOR  ASBESTOS  CEMENT 

AND 

CEMENT    DRY    MORTAR, 

BOTH  FOR  PLASTERING  WALLS  AND  CEILINGS. 

The  former  to  be  used  with  sand.  The  latter,  being  already  mixed 
with  sand,  requires  but  the  addition  of  water.  Our  Cement  Dry  Mortar 
cont'dins  only  Washed  Silicious  Sand. 

J.   B.   KING   &  CO., 

Sole  Patentees  and  Manufacturers, 

21-24    STATE   STREET,    NEW    YORK,    N.    Y. 

The  practical  Testimony  of  the  great  merits  and  appreciation  of  our 
WINDSOR  CKMENT  is  that  leading  architects  throughout  the  country  have 
called  for  it  on  their  best  and  most  costly  structures,  while  architects 
generally  have  specified  it  for  all  kinds  and  grades  of  buildings,  expensive 
and  inexpensive,  as  extra  cost  does  not  debar  its  use  on  even  the  humblest 
cottage.  Millions  of  barrels  of  it  have  been  used  within  the  last  three  years. 


We  improve  this  opportunity  to  tender  our  thanks  to  all  patrons,  and  to  invite  ail 
AHCIUTKCTS  everywhere  m  send  fur  our  complete  treatise  on  the  subject  of  "Needed  Im- 
provement in  Plaster  :or  Walls  and  Ceilings,"  and  also  our  "  Practical  Evidence  of 
Superiority,"  an  octavo  pamphlet  of  64  pages,  containing  about  4000  of  the  buildings  on 
which  our  material  has  been  used  —  the  buildings  being  classified  and  indexed  as  follows  : 

Office.  Insurance,  and  Bank  Buildings.  Federal.  State,  County,  and  Town  Buildings. 

Hospitals,  Asylums.  Sanitariums,  etc.  Theatres,  Opera  Houses,  Halls,  etc. 

Colleges,    Seminaries,     Libraries,     I.aborato-  Hotels. 

res,  etc.  Apartment    Hotels,  Apartment   Houses,   ai  d 
Public  School  Buildings.  Flats. 

Churches  and  Rectories.  Business  Buildings,  Store.-..  I  locks,  etc. 

Young  Men's  and  Young  Women's  Christian  Railroad  Iiepots  and  Stations. 

Association  and  Women's  Christian  Tem-  Mills.  Factories.  Breweries,  etc. 

perance  Union  Buildings.  Miscellaneous  Buildings. 

Masonic  Temples,  etc.  Residences. 

Plar.er  Beard:  aad  TV  K    A     /^"^      T  T*  T~7  Elevate:  and  lust-waiter 

Bl«i:.  1V1/\^"1     I     tL.  Chart:  a  Gpe:ia:t7. 

LAID  LAW  &  MACDONALD, 
Fire-proofing,  2-  and  3-inch  Fire-proof  Partitions, 

81   PINE  ST.  and   128  WATER  ST.,  NEW  YORK. 


BARNARD  COLLEGE.    New  York     .  .        LAMB  A;   RICH.  Architects. 

WOOUBRIDGE   BUILDING  .....        CLINTON  A:   RUSSELL. 
FAHY'S  .... 

And  refer  to  man 


Large   Elevator   Plants 

NOW    UNDER    CONSTRUCTION    KY 

OTIS  BROTHERS  &  Co. 

38  Park  Row,  New  York 


ARCHITKCTS  ARCHITECTS 

Tower  Building      4    James  B.  Baker  University  Club 

Henry  Corn         -     2     Robert  Maynicke  House                 -     -     4  McKim,  Mead  &  White 

Hospital  for  Rup-  Empire  Building  -  10  Kimball  &  Thompson 

tured  &  Crippled  2    Charles  C.  Haight  Isaac  V.  Brokaw 

Singer  Building      3     Krnest  KlagK  (Sherry's)    -          -  14  McKim.  Mead  \  White 

F.  ri.  Mela     •     -     2    Cleverdon  &  Putzel  N.  Y   Athletic  Club    4  \V.  A.  Cable 

Jos.  H.  Bauland  Standard  Oil  Co.    -  10  Kimball  &  Thompson 

Co.    -               -     •     3    Alfred   K    Partitt  Appraisers'  Stores  14  Supervising  Architect 
Hudson  Building    4     Clinton  &  Russell                                                                     Tri-asurv  l)r|>!. 

Washington   Life  Joseph  Home  &  Co.   7  Peabody  £:  Stearns 

Building-           -     9    C.  I..  W.  Ki.ilit/.  Mutual  Building  Co.  2  Bradford  I..  Giibi-rt 

The  Otis  Elevator  the  Standard  for  40  years 

S-e   iiesc'  ptmn   of   Central    Fank    Plant,   pages   ^45-249   o'  •(•  s   r-rok 


SKELETON  CONSTRUCTION 

AS  APPLIED  IN 

BUILDINGS. 

By     \VM.     H.     OIRKMIRE. 

Fully  Illustrated  with  Enyravinys  front  Practical  Ejc 
of  Hiyh  litiiMinfjfi. 


Svo,    C  otli.      FVic^,    S3. CO. 


This  work  includes  the  description  and  practical  working- 
details  of  Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel  Columns  in  the 
construction  of  the  skeleton  frame,  and  their  connections  with 
the  Floor  and  Curtain  Wall  Girders;  Stability  of  the  Structure; 
Wind  Bracing,  i.e.,  Knee  and  Lateral  Bracing1  ;  Construction  of 
Joints;  Experiments  on  the  Strength  of  Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron, 
and  Steel  Columns,  such  as  Z  Bar  Columns,  Phoenix  Columns, 
Plate  and  Angle  Columns,  and  various  commercial  rolled  shape 
columns  ;  Floor  Framing  in  the  Skeleton  Construction. 

New  York  Building  Law  of  1892  in  relation  to  the  Skeleton 
Frame  and  Curtain  Walls.  The  same  law  in  relation  to  the 
strength  of  Cast  Iron,  Wrought.  Iron,  and  Steel  Columns. 

Illustration  and  Calculation  of  the  Columns,  Floor  Plans, 
Tables  of  Material,  Specification,  Stairways,  Elevators,  and 
Roofs  in  buildings  using  Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel 
Columns  as  a  skeleton  frame,  such  as  "The  New  Netherlands," 
a  seventeen-story  building  with  nineteen  tiers  of  beams;  the 
Home  Life  Insurance  Building,  and  others. 


FOR   SALE  BY 

JOHN     WILEY    &    SONS, 

53   East  Tenth  Street,   New  York 


Remington   &   Sherman   Co., 

MANUFACTURERS  OF  THE  BEST 

SAFES  AND  VAULTS. 


23  F»AI*K;  FMLACE,  XEW 


PLANS  AND  ESTIMATES  SUBMITTED  WITHOUT  COST. 


THE   PASSAIC    ROLLING   MILL  CO., 

N.     J., 


MANUFACTURE     ALL 


STRUCTURAL    STEEL    SHAPES 

FOR    FIRE-PROOF    CONSTRUCTION. 
New  York  Office:  No.  45  Broadway.  correspondence  solicited. 


ESTABLISHED  \870. 


LLE PHONE   CALL,  SPRING  1051. 


K.    RIJT^LER, 


CONTRACTOR    FOF 


STEAM    AND    HOT-WATER    HEATING  APPARATUS, 
Complete  Boiler  and  Power  Plants, 

No.     178     CENTRE    STREET,     NEW     YORK. 


ARCHITECTURAL   IRON  AND   STEEL 

AND    ITS   APPLICATION 


IN     THE 


CONSTRUCTION  OF  BUILDINGS. 


WILLIAM    H.    BIRKMIRE. 

To  the  architect  or  builder  who  does  not  care  to  go  into  the 
study  of  details  and  construction,  and  yet  desires  to  avail  himself 
of  the  practice  and  experience  of  others  who  have  made  the  use 
of  iron  and  steel  their  special  study,  this  work  is  of  great  value. 

It  treats  of  Beams  and  Girders  in  Floor  Construction,  Rolled- 
iron  Struts,  Wrought  and  Cast  Iron  Columns,  Fire-proof  Columns, 
Column  Connections,  Cast-iron  Lintels,  Roof-trusses,  Stairways, 
Elevator  Enclosures,  Ornamental  Iron,  Floor-lights  and  Skylights, 
Vault-lights,  Doors  and  Shutters,  Window-guards  and  Grilles,  etc., 
etc.,  with  Specification  of  Ironwork;  and  selected  papers  in  rela- 
tion to  ironwork,  from  a  revision  of  the  present  law  before  the 
legislature  affecting  public  interests  in  the  City  of  New  York,  in 
so  far  as  the  same  regulates  the  construction  of  buildings  in  said 
city.  With  Tables,  selected  expressly  for  this  work,  of  the  properties 
of  Beams,  Channels,  Tees  and  Angles,  used  as  Beams,  Struts  and 
Columns,  Weights  of  Iron  and  Steel  Bars,  Capacity  of  Tanks,  Areas 
of  Circles,  Weights  of  Circular  and  Square  Cast-iron  Columns, 
Weights  of  Substances,  Tables  of  Squares,  Cubes,  etc.,  Weights  of 
Sheet  Copper,  Brass  and  Iron,  etc. 

8vo,  cloth.     Price,  $3.5O 

FOR    SALK    BY 

JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS, 

53  EAST  TENTH  ST..  NEW  YORK. 


THE    REVOLVING    DOOR 


excludes  all  wind,  snow, 
rain  and  dust  while  persons 
are  passing  in  and  out. 


Adopted  and  recommended  by 
:'("     owners    of    largest    buildings    in 
United  States  and  Canada. 


IV 'rite  for  Descriptive  Cinular. 


VAN  KANNEL  REVOLVING  DOOR  CO., 

253    Broadway,    New    York. 


Wings  revolving. 
''  always  closed.'' 


Wings  folded,  and 
fastened  centrally. 


Wings  folded,  and 
moved  aside. 


Wings  folded,  and 
locked. 


AMES    IRONWORKS, 


OiSWKOO,    X.     V. 


Branch  Offices  and  Salesrooms : 

NEW  YORK  :    38  COHTLA\DT  STREET 
CHIC^G'):    18   SOUTH   CA\AL   STREET. 
BOSTON:    50  OLIV-R  STREET. 
PHILADELPHIA:    1026   FILBERT  STREET 


Automatic  Engines  for  High  Office-Buildings, 

See   description  011  pages   236-238  of  this  book. 


•'/• 


/' 


Empire  Building,  New  York.Woodbridge  Eldg..  New  York.  Warren  Chambers  Bldg..  Boston. 
Potter  "  Exchange  Court.  "          "       City  Hall.  Philadelphia. 

Central  Bank  Bldg."         "       Hotel  Brunswick.  Boston.  Art  Club  Building. 

Lord's  Court '       Homoeopathic  Hospital.  Boston.  S.  S.  White    " 

Board   of  Trade   Building.  Chicago. 

s  thrcn^hou:   tht    llest. 


COMPOUND  RIVETED  GIRDERS 


FOR 


BUILDINGS. 


WILLIAM    H.    BIRKMIRE 


In  order  to  facilitate  the  calculation  attending  the  construction 
of  wrought-iron  and  steel  riveted  girders,  the  author  has  in  this 
book  endeavored  to  supply  the  link  which  separates  theory  from 
practice.  A  riveted  girder  is  to  be  designed;  the  span,  depth,  and 
loads  are  known  ;  the  strains  are  calculated  by  the  well-known 
bending-moment  formula;,  and  largely  by  the  graphic  method  ; 
lastly,  the  details  of  construction  are  fully  illustrated. 

The  time  consumed  in  wading  through  a  complicated  series  of 
equations  to  reach  a  few  measurements  is  objectionable — at  least  when 
such  measurements  can  at  once  be  had  by  the  graphic  method;  and 
any  one  who  can  draw  accurately  will  be  able  to  calculate  and 
design  girders  with  any  number  of  concentrated  loads,  arrange  plates, 
place  rivets,  etc.,  at  once. 


8vo.     Price,  $2.OO. 


JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS, 

53  EAST  TENTH  ST.,   NEW  YORK. 


McADAM  &  CARTWRIGHT  ELEVATOR  CO., 


MANUFACTURERS    OF 


Hydraulic,  Steam,  and  Electric  Passenger  and  Freight  Elevators 


HIGH  orncn-in  Y 

258   and   26O    Eleventh    Ave.,   NEW    YORK   CITY. 

We  refer  to  a  few  of  the  buildings  in  which  our  elevators  are  used 


American  Surety   Bui  ding, 
Lorsch  Bui  ding, 
Grand  Central  Station,  - 
J.  T.  Williams  Building, 

Br  ad  way  and   White  St., 
Equitable  Building, 
American  Lithograph  Co    Bldg., 


New  York.        Ayer  Building,  -  -    New  York. 


M  tropolitan  Street  Railroad 

Company   Building, 
County  Court  House,  Si.  Paul,  .Mo. 

The    Equitable    Buildings   of   Boston   and 

St.  P..  ul. 


CASSIDY  &  SON   MFG.  CO., 

MAM'KACI  TKKKS    OK 

Gas,  Electric,  and  Combination  Fixtures, 

733  &  135  W.  23d  St.  and  124.  126  &  128  W.  24th  St.. 

NEW     YORK:. 

Special    attention    given    to    High    Office-build  i  MCJ    Work. 


A .     S  H  A  H  I  R  O, 

HOUSE  AND  FRESCO  PAINTER 

AND 

HARDWOOD    FINISHER, 

Paper   Hanging    Kalsomining.  Graining,   and   Marbling. 

NO.      7O      liKOOMK.     iS-rKl-.KT,  XK  \V       V()RK. 


Lord's  Court   Building.  New  York.         Hartford    Building.  New  York 
Silk   Exchange  Arb  .eklc 

American  Society  of  Civil   Engineers'   Building 
And  several   public  schools  of  New  York 


THE 

PLANNING  AND  CONSTRUCTION 


OF 


AMERICAN  THEATRES. 


WILLIAM    H.    B1RKMIRE. 

For  general  and  practical  information,  upon  theatres  we  refer 
architects,  builders,  and  others  to  this  book,  in  which  figured  plans 
and  views  are  given  of  a  few  of  the  best  known  and  most  popular 
theatres  of  this  country. 

The  illustrations  are  of  the  highest  order,  embracing  complete 
views  of  the  Castle  Square  and  Gaiety  Theatres  of  Boston;  the 
Fifth  Avenue  Theatre,  the  American  Theatre,  Hammerstein's 
Olympia,  the  Abbey  Theatre,  the  Empire,  and  other  theatres  of 
New  York;  with  their  main  floors,  galleries,  and  complete  sections. 

The  book  also  describes  and  details  the  stage  and  its  appurte- 
nances, and  treats  of  acoustics  and  sighting. 

8vo,  cloth.     Price,  $3.OO, 


(JR    SALE    BY 


JOHN    WILEY    &    SONS, 

53  EAST  TENTH  ST.,   NEW  YORK. 


Central 


Fire-proofing  Co* 


HENRY     M.     KEASBEY,     President. 


Manufacturers    of 


Porous  and  Dense 
Ferra-Cotta  .... 


and  contractors 
for  the  erection  of 


Terra-Cotta  Fire-proofing  throughout  the 
United  States  and  Canada. 

This    company  has    five    factories   and    can   therefore    fill  large    orders  expeditiously. 

874  Broadway,  cor.  isth  street.  New  York. 


This  company  supplied  the  fire-proofing  in  most  of  the  large  buildings  illustrated  in 
this  book,  and  refers  to  the  following  not  included  in  the  book  : 


N,«  Y..rk  AtM-tif  Clu).,    " 

*  The  company  did  the 


UCLA-Art  Library 

NA  6230  B5 


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A    001  386  880 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

405  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

from  which  it  was  borrowed. 


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